The Earth and its inhabitants, Volume 1: Europe. / Greece, Turkey in Europe, Rumania, Servia, Montenegro, Italy, Spain, and Portugal.

by Elisée Reclus

• Introductory Remarks . . . [1]
• EUROPE.
  • I. Geographical Importance . . . [5]
  • II. Extent and Boundaries . . . [6]
  • III. Natural Divisions and Mountains . . . [9]
  • IV. The Maritime Regions . . . [13]
  • V. Climate . . . [16]
  • VI. Inhabitants . . . [18]
• THE MEDITERRANEAN.
  • I. Hydrology . . . [23]
  • II. Animal Life, Fisheries, and Salt-pans . . . [28]
  • III. Commerce and Navigation . . . [31]
• GREECE.
  • I. General Aspects . . . [36]
  • II. Continental Greece . . . [45]
  • III. The Morea, or Peloponnesus . . . [56]
  • IV. The Islands of the Ægean Sea . . . [69]
  • V. The Ionian Isles . . . [75]
  • VI. The Present and Future of Greece . . . [80]
  • VII. Government and Political Divisions . . . [85]
• TURKEY IN EUROPE.
  • I. General Aspects . . . [87]
  • II. Crete and the Islands of the Archipelago . . . [90]
  • III. Turkey of the Greeks (Thracia, Macedonia, and Thessaly) . . . [98]
  • IV. Albania and Epirus . . . [115]
  • V. The Illyrian Alps, Bosnia, and Herzegovina . . . [126]
  • VI. Bulgaria . . . [131]
  • VII. Present Position and Prospects of Turkey . . . [145]
  • VIII. Government and Administration . . . 150
    • Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin . . . [153]
  • RUMANIA . . . [155]
• SERVIA AND MONTENEGRO.
  • I. Servia . . . [172]
  • II. Montenegro . . . [179]
• ITALY.
  • I. General Aspects . . . [183]
  • II. The Basin of the Po: Piemont, Lombardy, Venetia, and Emilia . . . [189]
  • III. Liguria and the Riviera of Genoa . . . [230]
  • IV. Tuscany . . . [239]
  • V. The Roman Apennines, the Valley of the Tiber, the Marches, and the Abruzzos . . . [257]
  • VI. Southern Italy: Naples . . . [286]
  • VII. Sicily . . . 309
    • The Æolian or Liparic Islands . . . [331]
    • The Ægadian Islands . . . [334]
    • Malta and Gozzo . . . [335]
  • VIII. Sardinia . . . [338]
  • IX. The Present and Future of Italy . . . [352]
  • X. Government and Administration . . . [358]
  • CORSICA . . . [363]
• SPAIN.
  • I. General Aspects . . . [370]
  • II. The Castiles, Leon, and Estremadura . . . [377]
  • III. Andalusia . . . [394]
  • IV. The Me­di­ter­ra­nean Slope: Murcia and Valencia . . . [414]
  • V. The Balearic Islands . . . [423]
  • VI. The Valley of the Ebro: Aragon and Catalonia . . . [427]
  • VII. Basque Provinces, Navarra, and Logroño . . . [439]
  • VIII. Santander, the Asturias, and Galicia . . . [448]
  • IX. The Present and Future of Spain . . . [460]
  • X. Government and Administration . . . [465]
• PORTUGAL.
  • I. General Aspects . . . [469]
  • II. Northern Portugal: the Valleys of the Minho, Douro, and Mondego . . . [473]
  • III. The Valley of the Tagus . . . [482]
  • IV. Southern Portugal: Alentejo and Algarve . . . [490]
  • V. The Present and Future of Portugal . . . [496]
  • VI. Government and Administration . . . [498]
• INDEX . . . [501]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

• MAPS PRINTED IN COLOURS.
  • [1.] Ethnographical Map of Europe . . . 18
  • [2.] Turkey-in-Europe and Greece . . . 85
  • [3.] The Bosphorus and Constantinople . . . 98
  • [4.] Ethnographical Map of Turkey . . . 148
  • [5.] Italy . . . 183
  • [6.] The Delta of the Po . . . 210
  • [7.] The Bay of Naples . . . 288
  • [8.] Spain and Portugal . . . 365
• PLATES.
  • [01.] Peasants from the Environs of Athens . . . To face page . . . 53
  • [02.] Constantinople and the Golden Horn, from the Heights of Eyub . . . 99
  • [03.] Albanians . . . 118
  • [04.] Wealthy Arnauts . . . 124
  • [05.] Turkish Muleteers in the Herzegovina . . . 127
  • [06.] Tirnova . . . 133
  • [07.] Bulgarians . . . 138
  • [08.] Mussulman of Adrianople, and Mussulman Lady of Prisrend . . . 147
  • [09.] Wallachians (Valakhs) . . . 162
  • [10.] Belgrade . . . 174
  • [11.] The Pennine Alps, as seen from the Becca di Nona (Pic Carrel), 10,380 feet . . . 195
  • [12.] Venice . . . 207
  • [13.] The Palace at Ferrara . . . 228
  • [14.] Verona . . . 229
  • [15.] Peasants of the Abruzzos . . . 258
  • [16.] Naples . . . 300
  • [17.] Capri, seen from Massa Lubrense . . . 302
  • [18.] Amalfi . . . 304
  • [19.] La Valetta, Malta . . . 337
  • [20.] Peasants of Toledo, Castile . . . 390
  • [21.] Roman Bridge at Alcántara . . . 391
  • [22.] Gorge de los Gaitanes, Defile of Guadalhorce . . . 399
  • [23.] Peasants of Córdova, Andalusia . . . 406
  • [24.] Gibraltar, as seen from the “Lines” . . . 414
  • [25.] Peasants of La Huerta, and Cigarrera of Valencia . . . 419
  • [26.] Women of Ibiza, Balearic Isles . . . 425
  • [27.] Monserrat, Catalonia . . . 431
  • [28.] Barcelona, seen from the Castle of Monjuich . . . 437
  • [29.] Gorges of Pancorbo . . . 440
  • [30.] Los Pasages . . . 447
  • [31.] Oporto . . . 478
  • [32.] Lisbon . . . 484
• ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT.
  • EUROPE.
    • [1.] The Natural Boundary of Europe . . . 7
    • [2.] The Relief of Europe . . . 8
    • [3.] Development of Coast-lines relatively to Area . . . 14
    • [4.] The Isothermal Zone of Europe . . . 17
  • THE MEDITERRANEAN.
    • [5.] The Depth of the Me­di­ter­ra­nean . . . 24
    • [6.] The Strait of Gibraltar . . . 26
    • [7.] Principal Fisheries of the Me­di­ter­ra­nean . . . 30
    • [8.] Steamer Routes and Telegraphs . . . 34
  • GREECE.
    • [9.] MAINOTE AND SPARTAN . . . 42
    • [10.] Foreign Elements in the Population of Greece . . . 44
    • [11.] MOUNT PARNASSUS AND DELPHI . . . 46
    • [12.] Lower Acarnania . . . 49
    • [13.] Thermopylæ . . . 50
    • [14.] Lake Copais . . . 52
    • [15.] THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS . . . 54
    • [16.] Athens and its Long Walls . . . 55
    • [17.] Ancient Athens . . . 56
    • [18.] MOUNT TAYGETUS . . . 58
    • [19.] Lakes Phenea and Stymphalus . . . 60
    • [20.] The Plateau of Mantinea . . . 62
    • [21.] Bifurcation of the Gastuni . . . 63
    • [22.] The Valley of the Eurotas . . . 67
    • [23.] Euripus and Chalcis . . . 70
    • [24.] Nea Kaimeni . . . 72
    • [25.] CORFU . . . 76
    • [26.] The Channel of Santa Maura . . . 77
    • [27.] Argostoli . . . 79
  • TURKEY IN EUROPE.
    • [28.] THE GORGE OF HAGIO RUMELI . . . 91
    • [29.] Crete, or Candia . . . 93
    • [30.] The Ægean Sea . . . 95
    • [31.] Geological Map of the Peninsula of Constantinople . . . 99
    • [32.] The Hellespont, or Dardanelles . . . 105
    • [33.] Mount Athos . . . 108
    • [34.] MOUNT OLYMPUS . . . 110
    • [35.] Mount Olympus and the Valley of Tempe . . . 111
    • [36.] Southern Epirus . . . 117
    • [37.] Subterranean Beds of the Affluents of the Narenta . . . 128
    • [38.] Mount Vitosh . . . 132
    • [39.] Delta of the Danube . . . 137
    • [40.] Comparative Discharge of the Mouths of the Danube . . . 138
    • [41.] Commercial Highways converging upon Constantinople . . . 150
    • [42.] The Turkish Empire . . . 151
  • RUMANIA.
    • [43.] The Rumanians . . . 156
    • [44.] The Rivers Shil and Olto . . . 158
    • [45.] The Danube and Yalomitza . . . 161
    • [46.] Ethnological Map of Moldavian Bessarabia . . . 164
    • [47.] BUCHAREST . . . 169
  • SERVIA AND MONTENEGRO.
    • [48.] Confluence of the Danube and Save . . . 174
    • [49.] Montenegro and the Lake of Skodra . . . 180
  • ITALY.
    • [50.] Rome and the Roman Empire . . . 186
    • [51.] MONTE VISO . . . 189
    • [52.] Grand Paradis . . . 191
    • [53.] Plain of Débris between the Alps and Apennines . . . 192
    • [54.] Slope of the Valley of the Po . . . 193
    • [55.] Mud Volcanoes of the Northern Apennines . . . 194
    • [56.] Ancient Glaciers of the Alps . . . 195
    • [57.] Serra of Ivrea and Ancient Glacier Lakes of the Dora . . . 196
    • [58.] Ancient Lakes of Verbano . . . 197
    • [59.] Lake Como . . . 198
    • [60]–62. Sections of Lake Como . . . 199
    • [63.] VILLA SERBELLONI . . . 201
    • [64.] Beech and Pine Woods of Ravenna . . . 203
    • [65.] Shingle Beds of the Tagliamento, &c. . . . 205
    • [66.] Old Bed of the Piave . . . 206
    • [67.] Lagoons of Venice . . . 207
    • [68.] Colonies of the Roman Veterans . . . 209
    • [69.] The Po between Piacenza and Cremona . . . 211
    • [70.] German Communes of Northern Italy . . . 216
    • [71.] MONTE ROSA . . . 217
    • [72.] The Lagoons of Comacchio . . . 220
    • [73.] The Fisheries of Comacchio . . . 221
    • [74.] Mouth of the Adige Valley . . . 223
    • [75.] The Passages over the Alps . . . 224
    • [76.] The Lakes and Canals of Mantua . . . 227
    • [77.] Palmanova . . . 229
    • [78.] Junction of the Alps and Apennines . . . 231
    • [79.] Genoa and its Suburbs . . . 234
    • [80.] GENOA . . . 235
    • [81.] The Gulf of Spezia . . . 237
    • [82.] THE GOLFOLINO OF THE ARNO . . . 240
    • [83.] Defiles of the Arno . . . 241
    • [84.] Monte Argentaro . . . 243
    • [85.] Val di Chiana . . . 244
    • [86.] The Lake of Bientina . . . 245
    • [87.] The Malarial Regions . . . 247
    • [88.] FLORENCE . . . 252
    • [89.] The Harbour of Leghorn . . . 255
    • [90.] The Lake of Bolsena . . . 260
    • [91.] La Montagna d’Albano . . . 261
    • [92.] Ancient Lake of Fucino . . . 263
    • [93.] Lake of Trasimeno . . . 264
    • [94.] CAMPAGNA OF ROME . . . 265
    • [95.] Pontine Marshes . . . 267
    • [96.] Ancient Lakes of the Tiber and Topino . . . 269
    • [97.] CASCADES OF TERNI . . . 270
    • [98.] The Delta of the Tiber . . . 271
    • [99.] PEASANTS OF THE ROMAN CAMPAGNA . . . 272
    • [100.] ROME . . . 276
    • [101.] The Hills of Rome . . . 278
    • [102.] Civita Vecchia . . . 281
    • [103.] Valleys of Erosion on the Western Slope of the Apennines . . . 283
    • [104.] Rimini and San Marino . . . 285
    • [105.] Monte Gargano . . . 287
    • [106.] Ashes of the Campania . . . 289
    • [107.] ERUPTION OF MOUNT VESUVIUS . . . 292
    • [108.] Educational Map of Italy . . . 297
    • [109.] Pompeii . . . 301
    • [110.] The Marshes of Salpi . . . 305
    • [111.] Harbour of Brindisi in 1871 . . . 307
    • [112.] Harbour of Taranto . . . 308
    • [113.] Strait of Messina . . . 310
    • [114.] Profile of Mount Etna . . . 311
    • [115.] Lava Stream of Catania . . . 313
    • [116.] Subsidiary Cones of Mount Etna . . . 314
    • [117.] The Maccalubas and Girgenti . . . 317
    • [118.] PALERMO AND MONTE PELLEGRINO . . . 324
    • [119.] Trapani and Marsala . . . 326
    • [120.] Syracuse . . . 328
    • [121.] TEMPLE OF CONCORD AT GIRGENTI . . . 329
    • [122.] The Central Portion of the Æolian Islands . . . 332
    • [123.] The Me­di­ter­ra­nean to the South of Sicily . . . 334
    • [124.] The Port of Malta . . . 336
    • [125.] The Sea to the South of Sardinia . . . 339
    • [126.] Strait of Bonifacio . . . 340
    • [127.] La Giara . . . 345
    • [128.] District of Iglesias . . . 348
    • [129.] CAGLIARI . . . 350
    • [130.] Port of Terranova . . . 351
    • [131.] Navigation of Italy . . . 355
    • [132.] Commercial Routes of Italy . . . 356
    • [133.] Submarine Plateau between Corsica and Tuscany . . . 364
    • [134.] Profile of the Road from Ajaccio to Bastia . . . 365
    • [135.] BASTIA . . . 368
  • SPAIN.
    • [136.] Table-lands of Iberian Peninsula . . . 371
    • [137.] Dehesas near Madrid . . . 375
    • [138.] Density of Population . . . 376
    • [139.] Profile of Railway from Bayonne to Cádiz . . . 379
    • [140.] Sierras de Grédos and de Gata . . . 380
    • [141.] DEFILE OF THE TAJO . . . 382
    • [142.] Steppes of New Castile . . . 384
    • [143.] Salamanca . . . 388
    • [144.] THE ALCAZAR OF SEGOVIA . . . 389
    • [145.] TOLEDO . . . 390
    • [146.] Madrid and its Environs . . . 392
    • [147.] Aranjuez . . . 394
    • [148.] Basins of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir . . . 395
    • [149.] THE PASS OF DESPEÑAPERROS . . . 396
    • [150.] THE SIERRA NEVADA . . . 397
    • [151.] The Mouth of the Guadalquivir . . . 399
    • [152.] The Steppes of Ecija . . . 402
    • [153.] Zones of Vegetation on the Coast of Andalusia . . . 403
    • [154.] The Mines of Huelva . . . 406
    • [155.] THE ALHAMBRA . . . 408
    • [156.] Cádiz and its Roadstead . . . 411
    • [157.] Gibraltar . . . 413
    • [158.] Steppes of Múrcia . . . 416
    • [159.] THE PALM GROVE OF ELCHE . . . 418
    • [160.] The Palm Grove of Elche and the Huertas of Orihuela . . . 419
    • [161.] RUINS OF THE DYKE ABOVE LORCA . . . 420
    • [162.] PEASANTS OF MURCIA . . . 421
    • [163.] The Harbour of Cartagena . . . 423
    • [164.] The Gráo de Valencia . . . 424
    • [165.] The Balearic Islands . . . 426
    • [166.] VIEW OF IBIZA . . . 427
    • [167.] The Pytiuses . . . 428
    • [168.] Port Mahon . . . 430
    • [169.] The Delta of the Ebro . . . 435
    • [170.] The Steppes of Aragon . . . 436
    • [171.] The Environs of Barcelona . . . 440
    • [172.] The Sand-banks of Mataró . . . 441
    • [173.] Andorra . . . 443
    • [174.] Jaizquibel . . . 445
    • [175.] Azcoitia and Azpeitia . . . 447
    • [176.] The Environs of Bilbao . . . 449
    • [177.] St. Sebastian . . . 450
    • [178.] ST. SEBASTIAN . . . 451
    • [179.] Guetaria . . . 452
    • [180.] Guernica . . . 453
    • [181.] Pass of Reinosa . . . 454
    • [182.] Peñas de Europa . . . 456
    • [183.] Rias of La Coruña and Ferrol . . . 458
    • [184.] Santoña and Santander . . . 460
    • [185.] Oviedo and Gijon . . . 462
    • [186.] TOWER OF HERCULES . . . 463
    • [187.] Ria de Vigo . . . 464
    • [188.] Railroads of the Iberian Peninsula . . . 465
    • [189.] Foreign Commerce of the Iberian Peninsula . . . 466
    • [190.] Diagram exhibiting the Extent of the Castilian Language . . . 467
  • PORTUGAL.
    • [191.] Rainfall of the Iberian Peninsula . . . 470
    • [192.] PORTUGUESE TYPES (Peasants) . . . 472
    • [193.] The Valley of the Limia, or Lima . . . 475
    • [194.] Dunes of Avéiro . . . 476
    • [195.] Oporto and the Paiz do Vinho . . . 478
    • [196.] São João da Foz and the Mouth of the Dóuro . . . 480
    • [197.] COIMBRA . . . 482
    • [198.] The Estuary of the Tejo (Tagus) . . . 483
    • [199.] Peniche and the Berlingas . . . 485
    • [200.] Mouth of the Tejo . . . 486
    • [201.] Zones of Vegetation in Portugal . . . 488
    • [202.] CASTLE OF PENHA DE CINTRA . . . 489
    • [203.] MONASTERY OF THE KNIGHTS OF CHRIST AT THOMAR . . . 491
    • [204.] Estuary of the Sado . . . 492
    • [205.] Serra de Monchique and Promontory of Sagres . . . 493
    • [206.] Geology of Algarve . . . 494
    • [207.] Faro and Tavira . . . 496
    • [208.] Geographical Extent of the Portuguese Language . . . 497
    • [209.] Telegraph from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro . . . 498

THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.[*]