Influences of Geographic Environment / On the Basis of Ratzel's System of Anthropo-Geography - Ellen Churchill Semple

ELLEN CHURCHILL SEMPLE.

LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY.

January, 1911.

[Preface]
[Contents]
[List Of Maps.]
[Chapter I—The Operation Of Geographic Factors In History]
[Man a product of the earth's surface.]
[Stability of geographic factors in history.]
[Persistent effect of remoteness.]
[Effect of proximity.]
[Persistent effect of natural barriers.]
[Persistent effect of nature-made highways.]
[Regions of historical similarity.]
[Climatic influences.]
[The relation of geography to history.]
[Multiplicity of geographic factors.]
[Evolution of geographic relations.]
[Evolution of world relations.]
[Interplay of geographic factors.]
[Land and sea in co-operation.]
[Land and sea opposed.]
[Local and remote geographic factors.]
[Direct and indirect effects of environment.]
[Indirect mental effects.]
[Indirect effects in differentiation of colonial peoples.]
[Indirect effect through isolation.]
[General importance of indirect effects.]
[Indirect political and moral effects.]
[Time element.]
[Effect of a previous habitat.]
[Transplanted religions.]
[Partial response to environment]
[The case of Spain.]
[Sporadic response to a new environment.]
[The larger conception of the environment.]
[Unity of the earth.]
[Chapter II—Classes Of Geographic Influences]
[Physical effects.]
[Variation and natural conditions.]
[Stature and environment]
[Physical effects of dominant activities.]
[Effects of climate.]
[Acclimatization]
[Pigmentation and climate.]
[Pigmentation and altitude]
[Difficulty of Generalization]
[Psychical effects.]
[Indirect effect upon language]
[The great man in history.]
[Economic and social effects.]
[Size of the social group.]
[Effect upon movements of peoples.]
[River routes.]
[Segregation and accessibility.]
[Change of habitat.]
[Retrogression in new habitat.]
[The Boers of South Africa]
[Chapter III—Society And State In Relation To The Land]
[People and land.]
[Political geography and history.]
[Political versus social geography.]
[Land basis of society.]
[Morgan's Societas.]
[Land bond in hunter tribes.]
[Land bond in fisher tribes.]
[Land bond in pastoral societies.]
[Geographical mark of low-type societies.]
[Land and state.]
[Strength of the land bond in the state.]
[Weak land tenure of hunting and pastoral tribes.]
[Land and food supply.]
[Advance from natural to artificial basis of subsistence.]
[Land in relation to agriculture.]
[Migratory agriculture]
[Geographic checks to progress.]
[Native animal and plant life as factors.]
[Land per capita under various cultural and geographic conditions.]
[Density of population and government.]
[Territorial expansion of the state.]
[Checks to population.]
[Extra-territorial relations.]
[Geography in the philosophy of history.]
[Theory of progress from the standpoint of geography.]
[Man's increasing dependence upon nature.]
[Increase in kind and amount.]
[Chapter IV—The Movements Of Peoples In Their Geographical Significance]
[Universality of these movements.]
[Stratification of races]
[The name Historical Movement.]
[Evolution of the Historical Movement.]
[Nature of primitive movements.]
[Number and range.]
[Importance of such movements in history.]
[Geographical interpretation of historical movement.]
[Mobility of primitive peoples.]
[Natural barriers to movement.]
[Effect of geographical horizon.]
[Civilization and mobility.]
[Diffusion of culture.]
[Ethnic intermixture.]
[Complex currents of migration.]
[Cultural modification during migration.]
[Effect of early maritime migration.]
[The transit land.]
[War as a form of the historical movement.]
[Primitive war.]
[Slavery as form of historical movement.]
[Fusion by deported and military colonies.]
[Withdrawal and flight.]
[Dispersal in flight.]
[Natural regions of retreat.]
[Emigration and colonization.]
[Commerce.]
[Commerce a guide to various movements.]
[Movements due to religion.]
[Religious pilgrimages.]
[Historical movement and race distribution.]
[Migrations in relation to zones and heat belts.]
[Range of movements in Asia.]
[Range of movements in Africa.]
[Colonization and latitude.]
[Movement to like geographic conditions.]
[Movement to better geographic conditions.]
[Southward and westward drifts in the northern hemisphere.]
[Eastward movements.]
[Return movements.]
[Regions of attraction and repulsion.]
[Psychical influences in certain movements.]
[Results of historical movement.]
[Differentiation and area.]
[Contrasted environments.]
[Two-type populations.]
[Differentiation and isolation.]
[Differentiation and digression.]
[Geographic conditions of heterogeneity and homgeneity.]
[Differentiation versus assimilation.]
[Elimination by historical movement.]
[No new ethnic types.]
[Checks to differentiation.]
[Geographical origins.]
[Large centers of dispersion.]
[Small centers.]
[Tests of origin.]
[Chapter V—Geographical Location]
[Importance of geographical location.]
[Content of the term location.]
[Intercontinental location.]
[Natural versus vicinal location.]
[Naturally defined location.]
[Vicinal location.]
[Vicinal groups of similar or diverse race and culture.]
[Thalassic vicinal location.]
[Complementary locations.]
[Types of location.]
[Continuous and scattered location.]
[Central versus peripheral location.]
[Danger of central location.]
[Mutual relations between center and periphery.]
[Inland and coastward expansion.]
[Russian expansion in Asia.]
[Periphery as goal of expansion.]
[Reaction between center and periphery.]
[Periphery of colonization.]
[Dominant historical side.]
[The Mediterranean side of Europe.]
[Change of historical front.]
[Contrasted historical sides.]
[One-sided historical relations.]
[Scattered location due to geographic conditions.]
[Island way station on maritime routes.]
[Scattered location of primitive tribes.]
[Ethnic islands of expansion.]
[Political islands of expansion.]
[Ethnic islands of survival.]
[Discontinuous distribution.]
[Contrasted location.]
[Geographical polarity.]
[Geographical marks of growth.]
[Marks of inland expansion.]
[Marks of decline.]
[Interpretation of scattered and marginal location.]
[Prevalence of ethnic islands of decline.]
[Contrast between ethnic islands of growth and decline.]
[Chapter VI—Geographical Area]
[The size of the earth.]
[Relation of area to life.]
[The struggle for space.]
[Area an index of social and political development.]
[The Oikoumene.]
[Unity of the human species in the relation to the earth.]
[Isolation and differentiation.]
[Monotonous race type of small area.]
[Wide race distribution and inner diversities.]
[Area and language.]
[Large area a guarantee of racial or national permanence.]
[Weakness of small states.]
[Contrast of large and small areas in bio-geography.]
[Political domination of large areas.]
[Area and literature.]
[Small geographic base of primitive societies.]
[Influence of small confined areas.]
[The process of territorial growth.]
[Area and growth.]
[Historical advance from small to large areas.]
[Gradations in area and in development.]
[Preliminaries to ethnic and political expansion.]
[Significance of sphere of activity or influence.]
[Nature of expansion in new and old countries.]
[Relation of ethnic to political expansion.]
[Relation of people and state to political boundary.]
[Expansion of civilization.]
[Cultural advantages of large political area.]
[Politico-economic advantages.]
[Political area and the national horizon.]
[National estimates of area.]
[Estimates of area in small maritime states.]
[Limitations of small territorial conceptions.]
[Evolution of territorial policies.]
[Colonial expansion.]
[The mind of colonials.]
[Colonials as road builders.]
[Practical bent of colonials.]
[Chapter VII—Geographical Boundaries]
[The boundary zone in nature.]
[Gradations in the boundary zone.]
[Oscillating boundaries]
[Altitude boundary zones.]
['Wallace's Line' a typical boundary zone.]
[Boundaries as limits of movements or expansion.]
[Peoples as barriers.]
[Boundary zone as index of growth or decline.]
[Breadth of the boundary zone.]
[The broad frontier zone of active expansion.]
[Economic factors in expanding frontiers.]
[Value of barrier boundaries.]
[The sea as the absolute boundary]
[Natural boundaries as bases of ethnic and political boundaries.]
[Primitive waste boundaries.]
[Border wastes of Indian lands.]
[Alien intrusions into border wastes.]
[Politico-economic significance of the waste boundary.]
[Common boundary districts.]
[Tariff free zones.]
[Boundary zones of mingled race elements.]
[Ethnic border zones in the Alps.]
[The Slav-German boundary.]
[Assimilation of culture in boundary zones.]
[Boundary zones of assimilation in Asia.]
[Boundary zones of mountain Tibet.]
[Relation of ethnic and cultural assimilation.]
[The boundary zone in political expansion.]
[Tendency toward defection along political frontiers.]
[Centrifugal forces on the frontier.]
[The spirit of colonial frontiers.]
[Free border states as political survivals.]
[Guardians of the marches.]
[Border nomads as frontier police.]
[Lawless citizens deported to frontiers.]
[Drift of lawless elements to the frontiers.]
[Asylums beyond the border.]
[Border refugees and ethnic mingling.]
[Chapter VIII—Coast Peoples]
[The coast a zone of transition.]
[Width of coastal zones.]
[The inner edge.]
[Inner edge as head of sea navigation.]
[Shifting of the inner edge.]
[Artificial extension of inner edge.]
[Outer edge in original settlement.]
[Outer edge in early navigation.]
[Outer edge and piracy.]
[Outer edge in colonization.]
[Inland advance of colonies.]
[Interpenetration of land and sea.]
[Ratio of shoreline to area.]
[Criticism of this formula.]
[Accessibility of coasts from hinterland.]
[Mountain-barred hinterlands.]
[Accessible hinterlands.]
[Accessibility of coasts from the sea.]
[Embayed coasts.]
[Maritime activity on steep embayed coasts.]
[Contrasted coastal belts.]
[Evolution of ports.]
[Offshore islands.]
[Offshore islands as vestibules of the mainland.]
[Previous habitat of coast-dwellers.]
[Habitability of coasts as factor in maritime development.]
[Geographic conditions for brilliant maritime development.]
[Soil of coastlands as factor.]
[Barren coast of fertile hinterland.]
[Ethnic contrast between coast and interior peoples.]
[Ethnic contrasts in the Pacific islands.]
[Ethnic contrasts in the Americas.]
[Older ethnic stock in coastlands.]
[Ethnic amalgamations in coastlands.]
[Multiplicity of race elements on coasts.]
[Lingua franca of coasts.]
[Coast-dwellers as middlemen.]
[Monopoly of trade with the hinterland.]
[Differentiation of coast from inland people.]
[Early civilization of coasts.]
[Retarded coastal peoples.]
[Cultural contrast of coast and interior.]
[Progress from thalassic to oceanic coasts.]
[Geographic location of coasts.]
[Intermediate location between contrasted coasts.]
[Historical decline of certain coasts.]
[Political factors in this decline.]
[Physical causes of decline.]
[Interplay of geographic factors in coastlands.]
[Chapter IX—Oceans And Enclosed Seas]
[The water a factor in man's mobility.]
[Oceans and seas in universal history.]
[The sea in universal history.]
[Origin of navigation.]
[Primitive forms.]
[Primitive craft in arid lands.]
[Relation of the river to marine navigation.]
[Retarded navigation.]
[Regions of advanced navigation.]
[Geographic conditions in Polynesia.]
[Mediterranean versus Atlantic seamanship.]
[Three geographic stages of maritime development.]
[Influence of enclosed seas upon navigation.]
[Enclosed seas as areas of ethnic and cultural assimilation.]
[North Sea and Baltic basins.]
[Bering Sea.]
[Red Sea basin.]
[Assimilation facilitated by ethnic kinship.]
[Chinese expansion seaward.]
[Importance of zonal and continental location.]
[Thalassic character of the Indian Ocean.]
[The sea route to the Orient.]
[Limitation of small area in enclosed seas.]
[Successive maritime periods in history.]
[Contrasted historical rôles of northern and southern hemispheres.]
[Size of the oceans]
[Neutrality of the seas, its evolution.]
[Chapter X—Man's Relation To The Water]
[Protection of a water frontier.]
[Ancient pile villages.]
[Present distribution.]
[Malayan pile dwellings.]
[In Melanesia.]
[River dwellers in populous lands.]
[Reclamation of land from the sea.]
[The struggle with the water.]
[Mound villages in river flood-plains.]
[Diking of rivers.]
[Social gain by control of the water.]
[Control of water as factor in early civilizations of arid lands.]
[Cultural areas in primitive America.]
[Economy of the water: fisheries.]
[Fisheries as factors in maritime expansion.]
[Fisheries as nurseries of seamen.]
[Anthropo-geographic importance of navigation.]
[Chapter XI—The Anthropo-Geography Of Rivers]
[Rivers as intermediaries between land and sea.]
[Sea navigation merges into river navigation.]
[Historical importance of seas and oceans influenced by their debouching streams.]
[Baltic and White Sea rivers.]
[Atlantic and Pacific rivers.]
[Lack of coast articulations supplied by rivers.]
[River highways as basis of commercial preeminence.]
[Importance of rivers in large countries.]
[Rivers as highways of expansion.]
[Siberian rivers and Russian expansion.]
[Determinants of routes in arid or semi-arid lands.]
[Wadi routes in arid lands.]
[Increasing historical importance from source to mouth.]
[Location at hydrographic centers.]
[Effect of current upon trade and expansion.]
[Importance of mouth to upstream people.]
[Prevention of monopoly of river mouth.]
[Motive for canals in lower course.]
[Watershed canals.]
[Rivers and railroads.]
[Relation of rivers to railroads in recent colonial lands.]
[Unity of a river system.]
[The effect of common water supply in arid lands.]
[Union of opposite river banks.]
[Tendency toward ethnic and cultural unity in a river valley.]
[Identity of country with river valley.]
[Enclosed river valleys.]
[Rivers as boundaries of races and peoples.]
[Scientific river boundaries.]
[Rivers as political boundaries.]
[Fluvial settlements and peoples.]
[Riparian villages of French Canada.]
[Boatmen tribes or castes.]
[River islands as protected sites.]
[River and lake islands as robber strongholds.]
[River peninsulas as protected sites.]
[River islands as sites of trading posts and colonies.]
[Swamps as barriers and boundaries.]
[Swamps as regions of survival.]
[Swamps as places of refuge.]
[The spirit of the marshes.]
[Economic and political importance of lakes.]
[Lakes as nuclei of states.]
[Lakes as fresh water seas.]
[Chapter XII—Continents And Their Peninsulas]
[Insularity of the land-masses.]
[Classification of land-masses according to size and location.]
[Effect of size of land-masses.]
[Independence of location versus independence of size.]
[The case of Asia.]
[Location of hemispheres and ethnic kinship.]
[Continental convergence and ethnic kinship.]
[Africa's location.]
[The Atlantic abyss.]
[Atlantic islands uninhabited.]
[Geographical character of the Pacific.]
[Pacific affinities of North American Indians.]
[Polynesian affinities.]
[The real Orient of the World.]
[The Atlantic abyss in historic movements of peoples.]
[Races and continents.]
[Contrast of the northern and southern continents.]
[Isolation of the southern continents.]
[Effect of continental structure upon historical development.]
[Structure of North and South America.]
[Cultural superiority of the Pacific slope Indians.]
[Lack of segregated districts.]
[Coast articulations of continents.]
[Importance of size in continental articulations.]
[Historical contrast of large and small peninsulas.]
[Peninsular conditions most favorable to historical development.]
[Length of coastline.]
[The continental base of the peninsulas.]
[Continental base a zone of transition.]
[Historical contrast between base and extremity.]
[Continental base a scene of invasion and war.]
[Peninsular extremities as areas of isolation.]
[Ethnic unity of peninsulas.]
[Peninsulas as intermediaries.]
[Peninsulas of intercontinental location.]
[Atlantic peninsulas of Europe]
[Chapter XIII—Island Peoples]
[Physical relationship between islands and peninsulas.]
[Character of insular flora and fauna.]
[Endemic forms.]
[Paradoxical influences of island habitats upon man.]
[Conservative and radical tendencies.]
[The case of Japan.]
[Islands as nurseries and disseminators of distinctive civilizations.]
[Ancient Cretan civilization.]
[Limitation of small area in insular history.]
[Sources of ethnic stock of islands.]
[Ethnic divergence with increased isolation.]
[Differentiation of peoples and civilizations on islands.]
[Differentiation of language in islands.]
[Archaic forms of speech in islands.]
[Unification of race in islands.]
[Remoter sources of island populations.]
[Double sources.]
[Mixed population of small thalassic isles.]
[Mixed population of island markets.]
[Thalassic islands as goals of expansion.]
[Political detachability of islands.]
[Insular weakness due to small area.]
[Island remains of broken empires.]
[Political autonomy of islands based upon area and location.]
[Historical effects of island isolation; primitive retardation.]
[Later stimulation of development.]
[Excessive isolation.]
[The case of Iceland.]
[Protection of an island environment.]
[Factor of protection in Ceylon and Japan.]
[Character of the invaders as factor.]
[Islands as places of refuge.]
[Convict islands.]
[Penal colonies on uninhabited islands.]
[Island prisons for political offenders.]
[Islands as places of survival.]
[Insular survivals of manners and customs.]
[Effects of small area in islands.]
[Political dominion of small islands.]
[Economic limitations of their small area.]
[Poverty of alluvial lowlands in islands.]
[Dense populations of islands.]
[Density of population in Polynesia.]
[Various causes of this density.]
[Crowded and vacant islands.]
[Oceanic climate as factor.]
[Relation of density to area.]
[Island resorts.]
[Density of population affected by focal location for trade.]
[Overflow of island population to the mainland.]
[Precocious development of island agriculture.]
[Melanesian agriculture.]
[Intensive tillage.]
[Japanese agriculture.]
[The case of England.]
[Emigration and colonization from islands.]
[Modern emigration from islands.]
[Maritime enterprise as outlet.]
[Artificial checks to population.]
[Polyandry.]
[Infanticide.]
[Approved by the state.]
[Low valuation of human life.]
[Cannibalism in islands.]
[Chapter XIV—Plains, Steppes And Deserts]
[Relief of the sea floor.]
[Mean elevations of the continents.]
[Distribution of reliefs.]
[Homologous relief and homologous histories.]
[Anthropo-geography of lowlands.]
[Extensive plains unfavorable to early development.]
[Conditions for fusion in plains.]
[Retardation due to monotonous environment.]
[Value of slight elevations.]
[Plains and political expansion.]
[Arid plains.]
[Distribution and extent of arid plains.]
[Pastoral life.]
[Pastoral nomads of Arctic plains.]
[Historical importance of steppe nomads.]
[Mobility of pastoral nomads.]
[Tendency to trek.]
[Seasonal migrations.]
[Marauding expeditions.]
[Depredation and conquests of African nomads.]
[Forms of defense against nomad depredations.]
[Pastoral life as a training for soldiers.]
[Military organization of nomads.]
[Capacity for conquest and political consolidation.]
[Scope of nomad conquests.]
[Centralization versus decentralization in nomadism.]
[Spirit of independence among nomads.]
[Resistance to conquest.]
[Curtailment of nomadism.]
[Supplementary agriculture of pastoral nomads.]
[Irrigation and horticulture.]
[Effect of diminishing water supply.]
[Scant diet of nomads.]
[Checks to population.]
[Trade of nomads.]
[Pastoral nomads as middlemen.]
[Desert markets.]
[Nomad industries.]
[Oriental rugs.]
[Architecture of nomad conquerors.]
[Arid lands as areas of arrested development.]
[Mental and moral qualities of nomads.]
[Religion of pastoral nomads.]
[Fanaticism as a force in nomad expansion.]
[The faith of the desert.]
[Chapter XV—Mountain Barriers And Their Passes]
[Man as part of the mobile envelope of the earth.]
[Inaccessibility of mountains.]
[Mountains as transit regions.]
[Transition forms of relief between highlands and lowlands.]
[Importance of transition slopes.]
[Piedmont belts as boundary zones.]
[Density of population in piedmont belts.]
[Piedmont towns and roads.]
[Piedmont termini of transmontane routes.]
[Cities of coastal piedmonts.]
[Piedmonts as colonial or backwoods frontiers.]
[Mountain carriers.]
[Power of mountain barriers to block or deflect.]
[Significance of mountain valleys.]
[Longitudinal valleys.]
[Passes in mountain barriers.]
[Breadth of mountain barriers.]
[Circuitous routes through folded mountains.]
[Dominant trans-montane routes.]
[Brenner route.]
[Pass of Belfort.]
[Mohawk route.]
[Height in mountain barriers.]
[Contrasted accessibility of opposite slopes.]
[Its ethnic effects.]
[Persistence of barrier nature.]
[Importance of mountain passes.]
[Persistent influence of passes.]
[Geographic factors in the historical importance of passes.]
[Intermarine mountains.]
[Pass roads between regions of contrasted production]
[Passes determine trans-montane roads.]
[Navigable river approaches to passes.]
[Types of settlements in the valley approaches.]
[Lower settlements.]
[Pass cities and their markets.]
[Pass peoples.]
[Transit duties.]
[Strategic power of pass states.]
[Chapter XVI—Influences Of A Mountain Environment]
[Zones of altitude.]
[Politico-economic value of varied relief.]
[Relief and climate.]
[Altitude zones of economic and cultural development.]
[Altitude and density belts in tropical highlands.]
[Increasing density with motive of protection.]
[Motive of protection in primitive peoples.]
[Geographic conditions affecting density of mountain population.]
[Sparsity of population in the Alps.]
[Terrace agriculture.]
[Geographical distribution.]
[Terrace culture of the Saracens.]
[In the Himalayas.]
[In Tibet and China.]
[In ancient Peru.]
[Terrace agriculture in mountainous islands.]
[Among mountain savages.]
[Fertilizing]
[Economy of level land for houses and villages.]
[Perpendicular villages]
[Mountain pastures and stock-raising.]
[Mountain herdsman and shepherds.]
[Communal ownership of mountain pastures.]
[Haymaking in high mountains.]
[Methods of curing hay in mountains.]
[Winter industries of mountain peoples.]
[Overpopulation and emigration.]
[Forms of temporary emigration.]
[Permanent emigration.]
[Polyandry.]
[Female infanticide.]
[Effects of polyandry and polygamy.]
[Marauding tendencies in mountaineers]
[Cattle-lifting.]
[Historical results of mountain raiding.]
[Conquest of mountain regions]
[Political dismemberment of mountain peoples.]
[Individualism and independence]
[Types of mountain states.]
[Significance of their small size.]
[Slight power of mountain chiefs.]
[Mountain isolation and differentiation.]
[Survival of primitive races in mountains.]
[Diversity of peoples and dialects.]
[Constriction of mountain areas of ethnic survivals.]
[Isolation and retardation of mountain regions.]
[Conservatism of mountain peoples.]
[Mental and moral qualities.]
[Chapter XVII—The Influence Of Climate]
[Importance of climatic influences.]
[Climate in the interplay of geographic factors.]
[Direct and indirect effects of climate.]
[Effect of climate upon relief.]
[Climate limits the habitable area.]
[Adaptability of man to climatic extremes.]
[Temperature as modified by oceans and winds.]
[Effect of the westerlies.]
[Rainfall.]
[Temperature and zonal location.]
[Reactions of contrasted zones.]
[Temperate products from tropical highlands.]
[Isothermal lines in anthropo-geography.]
[Historical effect of compressed isotherms.]
[Effect of slight climatic differences.]
[Effect of climate upon distribution of immigration]
[Climate and race temperament.]
[Contrasted temperaments in the same nation.]
[Complexity of the geographic problem.]
[Monotonous climatic conditions.]
[The effects of Arctic cold.]
[Similarity of cultural development.]
[Cold and health]
[The small amount of tropical emigration]
[Effects of tropical climate.]
[Historical significance of deterioration]
[The problem of acclimatization.]
[Historical importance of the temperate zones.]
[Effects of contrasted seasons.]
[Effects of length of seasons.]
[Effect of long winters.]
[Complexity of climatic effects.]
[Social effects of long winters.]
[Zones of culture.]
[The cradle of civilization.]
[Notes]

Contents

List Of Maps.