Climatic Changes: Their Nature and Causes

by Ellsworth Huntington; Stephen Sargent Visher

[INDEX]

* Indicates illustrations.

• Abbot, C. G., cited, [45], [52], [237], [238], [239.]
• Aboskun, [104.]
• Africa, earthquakes, [301];
  • East, see East Africa;
  • lakes, [143;]
  • North, see North Africa.
• African glaciation, [266].
• Air, see Atmosphere.
• Alaska, glacial till in, [287];
  • Ice Age in, [221.]
• Albrecht, cited, [304].
• Alexander, march of, [88] f.
• Allard, H. A., cited, [183], [184].
• Alpha Centauri, companion of, [280];
  • distance from sun, [262];
  • luminosity, [278];
  • speed of, [281];
  • variations, [282].
• Alps, loess in, [159];
  • precipitation in, [141];
  • snow level in, [139].
• Altair, companion of, [280];
  • luminosity, [278];
  • speed of, [281].
• Amazon forest, temperature, [17].
• Ancylus lake, [217].
• Andes, snow line, [139].
• Animals, climate and, [1].
• Antarctica, mild climate, [219];
  • thickness of ice in, [125];
  • winds, [135], [161].
• Anti-cyclonic hypothesis, [135] ff.
• Appalachians, effect on ice sheet, [121].
• Arabia, civilization in, [67].
• Aral, Sea of, [108].
• Archean rocks, [211].
• Archeozoic, [3] f.;
  • climate of, [267].
• Arctic Ocean, submergence, [219].
• Arctowski, H., cited, [29], [46], [244].
• Argon, increase of, [236].
• Arizona, rainfall, [89], [108];
  • trees measured in, [73].
• Arrhenius, S., cited, [36], [254].
• Arsis, of pulsation, [24].
• Asbjörn Selsbane, corn of, [101].
• Asia, atmospheric pressure, [298];
  • central,changes of climate, * [75];
  • central, post-glacial climate, [271];
  • climate, [66];
  • glaciation in, [131];
  • storminess in, [60];
  • western, climate in, [84] f.
• Atlantic Ocean, storminess, [57].
• Atmosphere, changes, [19] f., [229];
  • composition of, [223-241];
  • effect on temperature, [231].
• Atmospheric circulation, glaciation and, [42].
• Atmospheric electricity, solar relations of, [56].
• Atmospheric pressure, earthquakes and, [298];
  • evaporation and, [237];
  • increase in, [239];
  • redistribution of, [49];
  • variation, [53].
• Australia, East, mild climate, [219];
  • precipitation, [144].
• Axis, earth's, [48];
  • wabbling of, [301].
• Bacon, Sir Francis, cited, [27].
• Bacubirito, meteor at, [246].
• Baltic Sea, as lake, [217];
• • freezing of, [100];
  • ice, [26];
  • storm-floods, [99];
  • submergence, [219].
• Bardsson, Ivar, [106].
• Barkow, cited, [135].
• Barometric pressure, solar relations of, [56].
• Barrell, J., cited, [3], [200], [213], [234].
• Bartoli, A. G., cited, [257].
• Bauer, L. A., cited, [150].
• Beaches, under water, [97].
• Beadnell, H. J. L., cited, [143].
• Beluchistan, rainfall, [89].
• Bengal, Bay of, cyclones in, [149].
• Bengal, famine in, [104] f.
• Berlin, rainfall and temperature, [93].
• Betelgeuse, [259] f.;
  • distance from sun, [262].
• Bible, climatic evidence in, [91] f.;
  • palms in, [92].
• Binary stars, [252].
• Birkeland, K., cited, [244].
• Black Earth region, loess in, [159].
• Boca, Cal., correlation coefficients, [83], [85].
• Boltzmann, L., cited, [257].
• Bonneville, Lake, [142], [143].
• Borkum, storm-flood in, [99].
• Boss, L. cited, [268], [269].
• Botanical evidence of mild climates, [167] ff.
• Boulders, on Irish coast, [119].
• Bowie, W., cited, [293].
• Bowman, I., cited, [213].
• Britain, forests, [220];
  • level of land, [220].
• British Isles, height of land, [111];
  • temperature, [216].
• Brooks, C. E. P., cited, [115], [143], [196], [215], [225].
• Brooks, C. F., cited, [209].
• Brown, E. W., cited, [191], [244].
• Brückner, E., cited, [27].
• Brückner periods, [27] f.
• Bufo, habitat of, [202].
• Buhl stage, [216].
• Bull, Dr., cited, [100], [101].
• Butler, H. C., cited, [66], [67] ff., [70], [76].
• California, changes of climate, * [75];
• • correlations of rainfall, [86];
  • measurements of sequoias in, [73], [74] ff.;
  • rainfall, [108].
• Cambrian period, [4] f.
• Canada, storminess, [53] f., [57];
  • storm tracks in, [113].
• Cape Farewell, shore ice at, [105].
• Carbon dioxide, erosion and, [119] f.;
  • from volcanoes, [23];
  • hypothesis, [139];
  • importance of, [9], [11] f.;
  • in Permian, [148];.
  • in atmosphere, [20], [96], [238];
  • in ocean, [226];
  • nebular hypothesis and, [232];
  • theory of glaciation, [36] ff.
• Caribbean mountains, origin of, [193].
• Carnegie Institution of Washington, [74].
• Caspian Sea, climatic stress, [104];
  • rainfall, [107] f.;
  • rise and fall, [27];
  • ruins in, [71].
• Cenozoic, climate, [266];
  • fossils, [21].
• Central America, Maya ruins, [95].
• Chad, Lake, swamps of, [171].
• Chamberlin, R. T., cited, [166], [233], [269].
• Chamberlin, T. C., cited, [19], [36], [38], [39], [42] f., [48], [122], [125], [152], [156], [190], [195], [227], [269].
• Chandler, S. C., cited, [301].
• Chinese earthquakes, periodicity of, [245].
• Chinese, sunspot observations, [108] f.
• Chinese Turkestan, desiccation in, [66].
• Chronology, glacial, [215].
• Clarke, F. W., cited, [226], [235].
• Clayton, H. H., cited, [173] f.
• Climate, effect of contraction, [189] ff.;
  • affect of salinity, [224];
  • in history, [64-97];
  • uniformity, [1-15];
  • variability, [16-32].
• Climates, mild, causes of, [166-187];
  • mild, periods of, [274].
• Climatic changes, and crustal movements, [285] ff.;
  • hypotheses of, [33-50];
  • mountain-building and, * [25];
  • post-glacial crustal movements and, [215-222];
  • terrestrial causes of, [188-214].
• Climatic sequence, [16] f.
• Climatic stages, post-glacial, [270].
• Climatic stress, in fourteenth century, [98-109].
• Climatic uniformity, hypothesis of, [65], [71] f.
• Climatic zoning, [169].
• Cloudiness, glaciation and, [114], [147].
• Clouds, as protection, [197].
• Colfax, Cal., correlation coefficients, [83].
• Cologne, flood at, [99].
• Compass, variations, [150].
• Continental climate, variations, [103].
• Continents, effect on climate, [111] f.
• Contraction, effect on climate, [189] ff., [199], [207];
  • effect on lands, [207];
  • heat of sun and, [13] f.;
  • irregular, [195];
  • of the earth, [18];
  • of the sun, [249];
  • stresses caused by, [310].
• Convection, carbon dioxide and, [239].
• Corals, in high latitudes, [21], [39], [167], [178].
• Cordeiro, F. J. B., cited, [181], [183], [186].
• Correlation coefficients, earthquakes and sunspots, [291];
  • Jerusalem rainfall and sequoia growth, [83] ff.;
  • rainfall and tree growth, [79] ff.
• Cosmos, effect of light, [185].
• Cressey, G. B., cited, [80].
• Cretaceous, lava, [211];
  • mountain ranges, [44];
  • paleogeography, * [201];
  • submergence of North America, [200].
• Croll, J., cited, [34] ff., [176].
• Croll's hypothesis, snow line, [139].
• Crust, climate and movements of, [63], [287], [310];
  • movements of, [43];
  • strains in, [22].
• Currents and planetary winds, [174].
• Cycads, [169].
• Cyclonic hypothesis, [97];
  • loess and, [163];
  • Permian glaciation and, [148];
  • snow line, [139].
• Cyclonic storms, in glacial epochs, [140] f.;
  • solar electricity and, [243] (see Storms, Storminess).
• Cyclonic vacillations, [30] f.;
  • nature of, [57] ff.
• Daily vibrations, [28] f.
• Danube, frozen, [98].
• Darwin, G. H., cited, [191].
• Daun stage, [217].
• Davis, W. M., cited, [271].
• Davisson, C., cited, [294], [295], [299].
• Day, C. P., cited, [239].
• Day, length of, [18], [191].
• Dead Sea, palms near, [92].
• Death Valley, [142].
• De Ballore, M., cited, [297], [298].
• Deep-sea circulation, rapidity, [227];
• • salinity and, [176];
  • solar activity and, [179].
• De Geer, S., cited, [215], [221].
• De Lapparent, A., cited, [200].
• Denmark, fossils, [271].
• "Desert pavements," [161].
• Deserts, abundant flora of, [171];
  • and pulsations theory, [88] ff.;
  • red beds of, [170].
• Devonian, climate, [266];
  • mountains, [209].
• Dog, climate and, [1].
• Donegal County, Ireland, [220].
• Double stars, [272], [280];
  • electrical effect of, [261].
• Douglass, A. E., cited, [28], [73], [74] f., [84], [85], [107].
• Dragon Town, destruction of, [104], [7108].
• Drake, N. F., cited, [297], [298].
• Droughts, and pulsations theory, [87] f.;
  • in England, [102];
  • in India, [104] f.
• Drumkelin Bog, Ireland, log cabin in, [220].
• Dust, at high levels, [240].
• Earth, crust of and the sun, [285-317];
• • internal heat, [212];
  • nature of mild climate, [274];
  • position of axis, [181];
  • rigidity of, [307];
  • temperature gradient, [213];
  • temperature of surface, [8].
• Earthquakes, and seasons, [294], [297];
  • and sunspots, [288] f.;
  • and tropical hurricanes, [300];
  • and wandering of pole, [304] f.;
  • cause of, [307];
  • compared with departures from Eulerian position, [306];
  • seasonal distribution of, [299];
  • seasonal march, [295].
• "Earthquake weather," [298].
• East Africa, mild climate, [219].
• East Indies, earthquakes of, [296].
• Eberswalde, tree growth at, [102] f.
• Ecliptic, obliquity of, [217].
• Electrical currents, in solar atmosphere, [261].
• Electrical emissions, variation of, [275].
• Electrical hypothesis, [150], [250] f., [256] ff.
• Electrical phenomena, storminess and, [56].
• Electricity, and earthquakes, [292];
  • solar, [243].
• Electro-magnetic hypothesis, [244].
• Electrons, solar, [56];
  • variation of, [256].
• Electro-stellar hypothesis, [274].
• Elevation, climatic changes and, [39].
• Engedi, palms in, [92].
• England, climatic stress, [101] f.;
  • storminess and rainfall, [107].
• Eocene, climate, [266].
• Equinoxes, precession of, [96].
• Erosion, storminess and, [309].
• Eskimo, in Greenland, [106].
• Eulerian movement, [301], [304].
• Euphrates, [67].
• Europe, climatic stress, [98] ff., [102] f.;
  • climatic table, [215];
  • glaciation in, [131],
  • ice sheet, [121];
  • inundations of rivers, [99];
  • post-glacial climate, [271];
  • rainfall, [107];
  • submergence, [196], [200].
• Evaporation, and glaciation, [112], [114];
  • atmospheric pressure and, [237];
  • from plants, [179];
  • importance, [129];
  • in trade-wind belt, [117];
  • rapidity of, [224].
• Evening primrose, effect of light, [184].
• Evolution, climate and, [20];
  • geographical complexity and, [241];
  • glaciation and, [33];
  • of the earth, [311].
• Faculæ, cause of, [61].
• False Point Lighthouse, barometric pressure at, [299].
• Famine, cause of, [103];
• • in England, [101] f.;
  • in India, [104] f.;
  • pulsations theory and, [87] f.
• Faunas, and mild climates, [168] f.;
  • in Permian, [152] f.
• Fennoscandian pause, [216].
• Flowering, light and, [184].
• Fog, and glaciation, [116];
  • as protection, [197];
  • temperature and, [178].
• Forests, climate and, [66].
• Form of the land, [43] ff.
• Fossil floras, and mild climates, [168];
  • in Antarctica, [273];
  • in Greenland, [273].
• Fossils, [169], [230];
  • and loess, [158];
  • Archeozoic, [3] f.;
  • Cenozoic, [21];
  • dating of, [153];
  • glaciation and, [138];
  • in peat bogs, [271];
  • mild climate, [167];
  • Proterozoic, [4], [6] f.
• Fourteenth century, climatic stress in, [98]-109.
• Fowle, F. E., cited, [45], [237], [238], [239].
• Frech, F., cited, [36].
• Free, E. E., cited, [142].
• Freezing, salinity and, [224].
• Fresno, rainfall record, [82].
• "Friction variables," [247].
• Frisian Islands, storm-flood, [99].
• Fritz, H., cited, [109].
• Frogs, distribution of, [202].
• Fuchs, cited, [289].
• Galaxy, [252].
• Galveston, Tex., rainfall and temperature, [94].
• Garner, W. W., cited, [183], [184].
• Gasses, in air, [233].
• Geographers, and climatic changes, [65] ff.
• Geological time table, * [5].
• Geologic oscillations, [18] f., [21] ff., [188], [240].
• Geologists, changes in ideas of, [64] f.
• Germanic myths, [219].
• Germany, forests, [220];
• • growth of trees in, [102];
  • storms in, [102].
• Gilbert, G. K., cited, [143].
• Glacial epochs, causes of, [268];
  • dates of, [216];
  • intervals between, [264] f.;
  • length of, [166] f.
• Glacial fluctuations, [24] ff.;
  • nature of, [57] ff.
• Glacial period, at present, [272];
  • ice in, [57] f.;
  • length of, [269];
  • list, [265];
  • temperature, [38].
• Glaciation, and loess, [155] f.;
  • and movement of crust, [287];
  • conditions favorable for, [111],
  • extent of, [124];
  • hypotheses of, [33] ff.;
  • in southern Canada, [18];
  • localization of, [130] ff.;
  • Permian, * [145];
  • solar-cyclonic hypothesis of, [110-129];
  • suddenness of, [138];
  • upper limit of, [141].
• Goldthwait, J. W., cited, [271].
• Gondwana land, [21], [204].
• Gravitation, effect on sun, [250];
  • pull of, [244].
• Great Basin, in glacial period, [126];
  • salt lakes in, [142].
• Great Ice Age, see Pleistocene.
• Great Plains, effect on ice sheet, [120].
• Greenland, climatic stress, [105] ff.;
  • ice, [26];
  • rainfall, [7108];
  • storminess, [57];
  • submergence, [219];
  • vegetation, [21], [37], [287];
  • winds, [135], [161].
• Gregory, J. W., cited, [90] ff., [97].
• Gschnitz stage, [216].
• Guatemala, ruins in, [95].
• Guervain, cited, [135].
• Gyroscope, earth as, [181].
• Hale, G. E., cited, [56], [62].
• Hamdulla, cited, [104].
• Hann, J., cited, [66].
• Hansa Union, operations of, [100].
• Harmer, F. W., cited, [115], [119].
• Heat, and earthquakes, [292];
• • earth's internal, [18].
• Hedin, S., cited, [88].
• Heim, A., cited, [190].
• Heligoland, flood in, [99].
• Helland-Hansen, B., cited, [174].
• Helmert, F. R., cited, [302].
• Henderson, L. J., cited, [9], [10], [11], [12].
• Henry, A. J., cited, [94], [208].
• Hercynian Mountains, [45].
• High pressure and glaciation, [115], [135].
• Himalayas, glaciation, [144];
  • origin of, [193],
  • snow line, [139].
• Himley, cited, [104].
• Historic pulsations, [24] f.;
  • nature of, [57] ff.
• History, climate of, [64]-97;
  • climatic pulsations and, [26].
• Hobbs, W. H., cited, [115], [125], [135], [161].
• Hot springs, temperature of, [6].
• Humphreys, W. J., cited, [2], [37] f., [45], [46], [50], [56], [238].
• Hurricanes, in arid regions, [144];
  • sunspots and, [53].
• Hyades, cluster in, [268].
• Ice, accumulations, [57] f.;
• • advances of, [122];
  • distribution of, [131],
  • drift, [105].
• Ice sheets, disappearance, [128];
  • limits, [120];
  • localization, [130] ff.;
  • rate of retreat, [165];
  • thickness, [125].
• Iceland, submergence, [219].
• Iowan ice sheet, rapid retreat, [165].
• Iowan loess, [158].
• India, drought, [104] f.;
  • famine, [104] f.;
  • rainfall, [7108].
• Indian glaciation, [266].
• Inter-glacial epoch, Permian, [153].
• Internal heat of earth, [212].
• Ireland, Drumkelin Bog, [220];
  • in glacial period, [119];
  • level of land, [220];
  • storminess and rainfall, [107];
  • submergence, [219].
• Irish Sea, tides, [191].
• Irrigation ditches, abandoned, [97].
• Isostasy, [307] ff.
• Italy, southern, climate of, [86] f.
• Japan, earthquakes of, [296].
• Javanese mountains, origin of, [193].
• Jaxartes, [7108].
• Jeans, J. H., cited, [251], [252], [253], [266], [272].
• Jeffreys, H., cited, [302], [303], [306].
• Jeffreys, J., cited, [191].
• Jericho, palms in, [92].
• Jerusalem, rainfall, [86];
• • rainfall and temperature, [94];
  • rainfall in, and sequoia growth, [83] ff.
• Johnson, cited, [226].
• Judea, palms in, [92].
• Jupiter, and sunspots, [243];
  • effect of, [253];
  • periodicity of, [61] f.;
  • temperature of, [258];
  • tidal effect of, [250].
• Jurassic, climate, [266];
  • mountain ranges, [44].
• Kansas, variations of seasons, [103].
• Kara Koshun marsh, Lop Nor, [104].
• Keewatin center, [113];
• • evaporation in, [129].
• Keewatin ice sheet, [121].
• Kelvin, Lord, cited, [13] f.
• Keyes, C. R., cited, [156].
• Kirk, E., cited, [287].
• Knott, C. G., cited, [294], [295], [297], [299], [304], [306].
• Knowlton, F. H., cited [167], [169], [170], [212], [232].
• Köppen, W.,, [52], [140].
• Krakatoa, glaciation and, [48];
  • volcanic hypothesis and, [45].
• Krümmel, O., cited, [224], [228].
• Kullmer, C. J., cited, [113], [115], [128];
  • map of storminess, * [54].
• Kungaspegel, sea routes described, [106].
• Labor, price in England, [102].
• Labradorean center of glaciation, [113].
• Lahontan, Lake, [142].
• Lake strands, see Strands.
• Lake Superior, lava, [211].
• Lakes, during glacial periods, [141] f.;
• • in semi-arid regions, [60];
  • of Great Basin, [126];
  • ruins in, [97].
• Land, and water, climatic effect of, [196] ff.;
  • distribution of, [200], form of, [43] ff.;
  • range of temperature and, [196].
• Lavas, climatic effect of, [211].
• Lawson, A. C., cited, [310].
• Lebanon, cedars of, [83].
• Leiter, H., cited, [71].
• Leverett, F., cited, [271].
• Life, atmosphere and, [229] f.;
  • chemical characteristic of, [12];
  • effect of salinity, [225];
  • of glacial period, [127];
  • persistence of forms, [230].
• Light, effect of atmosphere on, [236];
  • effect on plants, [184] ff.;
  • ultra-violet, storminess and, [56];
  • variation of, [275].
• Litorina sea, [218].
• Loess, date of, [156] ff.;
  • origin of, [155], [165].
• Lop Nor, rise of, [104];
  • swamps, [171].
• Lows, and glacial lobes, [122];
  • movements of, [126];
  • see Storms and Cyclones.
• Lulan, [104].
• Lull, R. S., cited, [5], [188].
• MacDougal, D. T., cited, [171].
• McGee, W. J., cited, [156].
• Macmillan, W. D., cited, [191].
• Magdalenian period, [216].
• Magnetic fields of sunspots, [56].
• Magnetic poles, relation to storm tracks, [150].
• Makran, climate, [89];
• • rainfall, [89].
• Malay Archipelago, earthquakes of, [296].
• Mallet, R., cited, [288].
• Malta, rainfall, [86].
• Manson, M., cited, [147].
• Mayas, civilization, [26];
  • ruins, [95].
• Mayence, flood at, [99].
• Mazelle, E., cited, [224].
• Mediterranean, climate of, [72];
  • rainfall records, [86];
  • storminess in, [60].
• Mercury, and sunspots, [243].
• Mesozoic, climate, [266];
  • crustal changes, [286];
  • emergence of lands, [287].
• Messier, [8];
  • variables, [248].
• Metcalf, M. M., cited, [202].
• Meteorological factors and earthquakes, [300] f.
• Meteorological hypothesis of crustal movements, [294].
• Meteors, and sun's heat, [13], [246].
• Michelson, A. A., cited, [259].
• Middle Silurian, fauna in Alaska, [287].
• Mild climates, see Climates, mild.
• Milky Way, [252].
• Mill, H. R., cited, [228].
• Milne, J., cited, [288], [290], [294], [304], [306].
• Miocene, crustal changes, [287].
• Mississippi Basin, loess in, [159].
• Mogul emperor, and famine, [104].
• Monsoons, character of, [146];
  • direction of, [208];
  • Indian famines and, [105].
• Moulton, F. R., cited, [13], [258], [269].
• Mountain building, climatic changes and, * [25].
• Mountains, folding of, [190];
  • rainfall, on, [208].
• Multiple stars, [252].
• Nansen, F., cited, [122], [174].
• Naples, rainfall, [86].
• Nathorst, cited, [169].
• Nebulæ, [247].
• Nebular hypothesis, [232], [267].
• Neolithic period, [218].
• Nevada, correlations of rainfall, [86].
• New England, height of land, [111].
• New Mexico, rainfall, [89].
• New Orleans, La., rainfall and temperature, [94].
• New Zealand, climate, [177];
• • tree ferns, [179].
• Newcomb, S., cited, [52].
• Nile floods, periodicity in, [245].
• Nitrogen, in atmosphere, [19].
• Niya, Chinese Turkestan, desiccation at, [66].
• Nocturnal cooling, changes in, [238] f.
• Norlind, A., cited, [100].
• Norsemen, route to Greenland, [26].
• Norse sagas, [219].
• North Africa, climate of, [71];
  • Roman aqueducts in, [71].
• North America, at maximum glaciation, [122] ff.;
  • emergence of lands, [193],
  • glaciation in, [131],
  • height of land, [111],
  • interior sea in, [200],
  • inundations, [196],
  • loess in, [155],
  • submergence of lands, [19], [21].
• North Atlantic Ocean, salinity, [228].
• North Sea, climatic stress, [98] ff.;
  • floods around, [26], [99];
  • rainfall, [107];
  • storminess, [57].
• Northern hemisphere, earthquakes of, [294].
• Norway, decay, [100];
  • temperature, [177].
• Novæ, [247].
• Oceanic circulation, carbon dioxide and, [39] ff.
• Oceanic climate, characteristics, [103].
• Oceanic currents, diversion, [44];
• • influence of land distribution, [203].
• Oceans, age of, [223];
  • composition of, [223]-241;
  • deepening of, [199];
  • salinity, [19], [223];
  • temperature, [6], [152], [180], [226].
• Okada, T., cited, [224].
• Old Testament, temperature, [92].
• Orbital precessions, [27].
• Ordovician, climate, [266].
• Organic evolution, glacial fluctuations and, [26].
• Orion, nebulosity near, [247];
  • stars near, [248].
• Orontes, [67].
• Osborn, H. F., cited, [216].
• Owens-Searles, lakes, [142].
• Oxus, [7108].
• Oxygen, in atmosphere, [20], [234];
  • in Permian, [152].
• Ozone, cause of, [56].
• Paleolithic, [216].
• Paleozoic, climate, [266];
• • mountains in, [209].
• Palestine, change of climate, [91] f.
• Palms, climatic change and, [91] f.;
  • in Ireland, [179].
• Palmyra, ruins of, [66].
• Parallaxes of stars, [276] f.
• Patrician center, [134].
• Peat-bog period, first, [218].
• Penck, A., cited, [139], [156], [157], [158], [269].
• Pennsylvanian, life of, [26].
• Periodicities, [245] f.
• Periodicity, of climatic phenomena, [60] f.;
  • of glaciation, [268];
  • of sunspots, [243].
• Permian, climate, [266];
  • distribution of glaciation, [152];
  • glaciation, [60], [144], * [145], [226];
  • glaciation and mountains, [45];
  • life of, [26];
  • red beds, [151];
  • temperature, [146] f.
• Perry, cited, [289].
• Persia, lakes, [143];
  • rainfall, [89].
• Pettersson, O., cited, [98] ff., [100] f., [103], [106], [219].
• Pirsson, L. V., cited, [3], [196].
• Planetary hypothesis, [253], [267].
• Planetary nebulæ, [252].
• Planets, and sunspots, [243];
  • effect of star on, [255];
  • sunspot cycle and, [62];
  • temperatures, [8] f.
• Plants, climate and, [1] f.;
  • effect of light, [184] ff.
• Pleion, defined, [29].
• Pleionian migrations, [29] f.
• Pleistocene, climate, [266];
  • duration of, [48];
  • glaciation, [110] ff.;
  • ice sheets, * [123].
• Pluvial climate, causes of, [143];
  • during glacial periods, [141].
• Po, frozen, [98].
• Polaris, [272].
• Polar wandering, hypothesis of, [48] f.
• Pole and earthquakes, [305].
• Post-glacial crustal movements and climatic changes, [215-222].
• Poynting, J. H., cited, [8].
• Precessional hypothesis, [34] f.
• Precipitation, and glaciation, [114], [133];
  • during glacial period, [118];
  • snow line and, [139];
  • temperature and, [94].
• Procyon, companion of, [280];
  • luminosity, [278];
  • speed of, [281].
• Progressive change, [241].
• Progressive desiccation, hypothesis of, [65] ff.
• Proterozoic, [4] f.;
  • fossils, [6] f.;
  • glaciation, [18], [144], [226], [266];
  • lava, [211];
  • mountains in, [209];
  • oceanic salinity, [42] f.;
  • oxygen in air, [234];
  • red beds, [151];
  • temperature, [146] f.
• Pulsations, hypothesis of, [65], [72] ff.
• Pulsatory climatic changes, [72] ff.
• Pulsatory hypothesis, [272].
• Pumpelly, R., cited, [271].
• Radiation, variation of, [275].
• Radioactivity, heat of sun and, [14] f.
• Rainfall, changes in, [93] f.;
• • glaciation and, [50];
  • sunspots and, [53], * [58], [59];
  • tree growth and, [79].
• Red beds, [151], [170].
• Rhine, flood, [99];
  • frozen, [98].
• Rho Ophiuchi, variables, [248].
• "Rice grains," [61].
• Richardson, O. W., cited, [256].
• Rigidity, of earth, [307].
• Roads, climate and, [66].
• Rogers, Thorwald, cited, [101].
• Romans, aqueduct of, [71].
• Rome, history of, [87].
• Rotation, of earth, [18] f.
• Ruden, storm-flood, [99].
• Rugen, storm-flood, [99].
• Ruins, as climatic evidence, [66];
  • rainfall and, [60].
• Sacramento, correlation coefficients, [82] f., [85];
• • rainfall, [86];
  • rainfall record, [79].
• Sagas, cited, [105] f.
• St. John, C. E., cited, [236].
• Salinity, deep-sea circulation and, [176];
  • effect on climate, [224];
  • in North Atlantic, [228];
  • ocean temperature and, [226];
  • of ocean, [19], [120].
• Salisbury, R. D., cited, [111], [125], [129], [139], [156], [206], [269], [271].
• Salt, in ocean, [223].
• San Bernardino, correlation of rainfall, [85].
• Saturn, and sunspots, [243];
  • sunspot cycle and, [62].
• Sayles, R. W., cited, [183].
• Scandinavia, climatic stress, [100] f.;
  • fossils, [271];
  • post-glacial climate, [271];
  • rainfall, [107];
  • storminess, [57], [107];
  • temperature, [216].
• Scandinavian center of glaciation, [113].
• Schlesinger, F., cited, [275], [278], [298], [301], [305].
• Schuchert, C., cited, [3], [5], [23], * [25], * [123], [138], * [145], [168], [169], [172], [188], [193], [196], [198], [200], * [201], [206], [211], [230], [265].
• Schuster, A., cited, [61], [244], [294], [296].
• Sculpture, Maya, [96].
• Sea level and glaciation, [119].
• Seasonal alternations, [28] f.
• Seasonal banding, [183] f.
• Seasonal changes, geological, [183].
• Seasons, and earthquakes, [294], [295], [297], [299];
  • evidences of, [169].
• Secular progression, [17] ff., [188].
• Seistan, swamps, [171].
• Sequoias, measurements of, [74] ff.;
  • rainfall record, [79].
• Setchell, W. A., cited, [1].
• Shackleton, E., cited, [125].
• Shapley, H., cited, [246], [247], [254], [256], [275].
• Shimek, E., cited, [157], [161].
• Shreveport, La., rainfall and temperature, [93] f.
• Shrinkage of the earth, [190].
• Siberia, and glaciation, [132].
• Sierras, rainfall records, [82].
• Simpson, G. C., cited, [222].
• Sirius, companion of, [280];
  • distance from sun, [262];
  • luminosity, [278];
  • speed of, [281].
• Slichter, C. S., cited, [192].
• Smith, J. W., cited, [73].
• Snowfall, glaciation and, [50], [114].
• Snowfield, climatic effects of, [115].
• Snow line, height of, [138];
  • in Andes, [139];
  • in Himalayas, [139].
• Solar activity, cycles of, [245];
  • deep-sea circulation and, [179];
  • ice and, [134].
• Solar constant, [114].
• Solar-cyclonic hypothesis, [51-63], [287];
  • glaciation and, [110-129].
• Solar prominences, cause of, [61].
• Solar system, [252];
  • conservation of, [243];
  • proximity to stars, [63].
• Solar variations, storms and, [31].
• South America, earthquakes, [301].
• South Pole, thickness of ice at, [125].
• Southern hemisphere, earthquakes, [296];
  • glaciation in, [131] f.
• Southern Pacific railroad, rainfall records along, [82].
• Soy beans, effect of light, [185] f.
• Space, sun's journey through, [264-284].
• Spiral nebulæ, [251] f.;
  • universe of, [267].
• Spitzbergen, submergence, [219].
• Springs, climate and, [66].
• Stars, approach to sun, [253];
  • binary, [252];
  • clusters, [252], [268];
  • effect on solar atmosphere, [63];
  • dark, [254];
  • parallaxes of, [276] f.;
  • tidal action of, [249].
• Stefan's Law, [257].
• Stein, M. A., cited, [78].
• Stellar approaches, probability of, [260].
• Storm belt in arid regions, [144].
• Storm-floods, in fourteenth century, [99].
• Storminess, and erosion, [309];
  • and ice, [134];
  • effect on glaciation, [112];
  • sunspots and, [163];
  • temperature and, [94], [173].
• Storms, blows of, [300], [302];
  • increase, [60];
  • movement of, [125] f.;
  • movement of water and, * [175];
  • origin of, [30] f.;
  • sunspots and, [28], [53];
  • see Cyclones and Lows.
• Storm tracks, during glacial period, [117];
  • location, [113];
  • relation to magnetic poles, [150];
  • shifting of, [119].
• Strands, climate and, [66];
  • in semi-arid regions, [60];
  • of salt lakes, [142].
• Suess, E., cited, [192].
• Sun, and the earth's crust, [285-317];
  • approach to star, [253];
  • atmosphere of, [61], [274];
  • atmosphere of, and weather, [52;]
  • cooling of, [49;]
  • contraction of, [249;]
  • disturbances of, [172];
  • effect of other bodies on, [242-263];
  • heat, [13];
  • journey through space, [264-284];
  • Knowlton's hypothesis of, [168].
• Suncracks, [232.]
• Sunspot cycles, [27] f.
• Sunspots, and earthquakes, [289];
  • causes of, [61];
  • magnetic field of, [261];
  • maximum of, [109];
  • mild climates and, [172];
  • number, [7108] f.;
  • periodicity, [243];
  • planetary hypothesis of, [253];
  • records, [245];
  • storminess and, [163];
  • storms and, [300];
  • temperature of earth and, [52], [173].
• Sunspot variations, [282].
• Swamps, as desert phenomena, [171].
• Sylt, storm-flood, [99].
• Syria, civilization in, [67];
  • inscriptions in, [76];
  • Roman aqueducts in, [71].
• Syrian Desert, ruins in, [66].
• Talbert, cited, [213].
• Tarim Basin, red beds, [151].
• Tarim Desert, desiccation, [66].
• Tarim River, swamps, [171].
• Taylor, G., cited, [140], [144], [191], [271].
• Temperature, change of in Atlantic, [174];
• • changes in, [93];
  • climatic change and, [49];
  • critical, [9];
  • geological time and, [3];
  • glacial period, [38];
  • glaciation and, [42], [132], [139];
  • gradient of earth, [213];
  • of ocean, [180];
  • in Norway, [177];
  • in Permian, [146] f.;
  • in Proterozoic, [146] f.;
  • limits, [6] ff.;
  • precipitation and, [94];
  • range of, [3], [8];
  • solar activity and, [140];
  • storminess and, [94], [112], [173];
  • sunspots and, [28], [173];
  • volcanic eruptions and, [46];
  • zones, [172].
• Terrestial causes of climatic changes, [188-214].
• Tertiary, lava, [211].
• Thames, frozen, [98].
• Thermal solar hypothesis, [49] f., [97].
• Thermo-pleion, movements of, [30].
• Thesis, of pulsations, [24].
• Thiryu, storm-flood, [99].
• Tian-Shan Mountains, irrigation in, [71].
• Tidal action of stars, [249].
• Tidal effect, of Jupiter, [253];
  • of planets, [244].
• Tidal hypothesis, [251].
• Tidal retardation, effect on land and sea, [191];
  • rotation of earth and, [18] f.;
  • stress caused by, [310].
• Tides, cycles of, [219].
• Time, geological, see Geological time.
• Toads, distribution of, [202].
• Tobacco plant, effect of light, [184].
• Topography, and glaciation, [132].
• Transcaspian Basin, red beds, [151].
• Tree ferns, in New Zealand, [179].
• Tree growth, periodicity in, [245];
  • rainfall and, [79].
• Tress, in California, [219];
  • measurement of, [73] ff.
• Triassic, climate, [266].
• Trifid Nebula, variables, [248].
• Trondheim, wheat in, [101].
• Trondhenäs, corn in, [101].
• Tropical cyclones, in glacial epochs, [140] f.;
  • occurrence, [148];
  • solar activity and, [113].
• Tropical hurricanes, earthquakes and, [300];
  • sunspots and, [149].
• Turfan, temperature, [17].
• Turner, H. H., cited, [245].
• Tyler, J. M., cited, [216].
• Tyndall, J., cited, [36], [37].
• Typhoon region, "earthquake weather," [298].
• Typhoons, occurrence, [300].
• United States, rainfall and temperature in Gulf region, [93] f.;
• • salt lakes in, [142];
  • southwestern, climate, [66];
  • storminess, [53] f., [60].
• Variables, [247].
• Veeder, M. A., cited, [300].
• Vegetation, theory of pulsations and, [90].
• Venus, atmosphere of, [236].
• Vesterbygd, invasion of, [106].
• Vicksburg, Miss., rainfall and temperature, [93] f.
• Volcanic activity, climate and, [210];
• • movement of the earth's crust and, [285];
  • times of uplifting lands and, [23].
• Volcanic dust, climatic changes and, [97].
• Volcanic hypothesis, climatic change and, [45] ff.;
  • snow line, [139].
• Volcanoes, activity of, [96].
• Volga, [108].
• Walcott, C. D., cited, [4], [230].
• Wandering of the pole, [302].
• Water, importance, [9].
• Water vapor, condensation of, [56];
• • effect on life, [231];
  • in atmosphere, [19].
• Wave, effect on movement of water, [176].
• Weather, changes of, [31] f.;
  • origin of, [174];
  • variations, [52].
• Wells, H. G., cited, [35].
• Wendingstadt, storm-flood, [99].
• Westerlies, [21] f.
• Wheat, price in England, [102].
• White Sea, submergence, [219].
• Whitney, J. D., cited, [142].
• Wieland, G. R., cited, [169].
• Williamson, E. D., cited, [226].
• Willis, B., cited, [206].
• Winds, at ice front, [162];
  • effect on currents, [174];
  • glaciation and, [133];
  • in Antarctica, [161];
  • in glacial period, [119];
  • in Greenland, [161];
  • planetary system of, [174];
  • velocity, [240].
• Witch hazel, effect of light, [184].
• Wolf, J. R., cited, [61], [109], [288].
• Wolfer, cited, [244].
• Wright, W. B., cited, [35], [111], [119].
• Writing, among Mayas, [96].
• Yucatan, Maya civilization, [26], [107];
• • rainfall, [108];
  • ruins, [95].
• Yukon, Ice Age in, [221].
• Zante, earthquakes of, [296].
• Zonal crowding, [117].

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] W. A. Setchell: The Temperature Interval in the Geographical Distribution of Marine Algæ; Science, Vol. 52, 1920, p. 187.

[2] J. Barrell: Rhythms and the Measurements of Geologic Time; Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 28, Dec., 1917, pp. 745-904.

[3] Pirsson and Schuchert: Textbook of Geology, 1915, pp. 538-550.

[4] From Charles Schuchert in The Evolution of the Earth and Its Inhabitants: Edited by R. S. Lull, New Haven, 1918, but with revisions by Professor Schuchert.

[5] J. H. Poynting: Radiation in the Solar System; Phil. Trans. A, 1903, 202, p. 525.