Area Handbook for Albania

by Eugene K. Keefe; Sarah Jane Elpern; William Giloane; James M. Moore; Stephen Peters; Eston T. White

revisionism—As interpreted by Albanian Communists, the actions and ideologies of Communist states that are inconsistent with Albanian interpretations of Marxism-Leninism.

Sigurimi—Name applied to state security police under the Communist regime; derived from the Directorate of State Security (Drejtorija e Sigurimit te Shtetit).

Sunni—One of the two major branches of Islam.

Tosks—The smaller of the two subgroups of Albanians. They live south of the Shkumbin River. Differences in social organization between the two groups lessened under Communist rule. They abandoned their tribal pattern of life earlier and were more influenced by foreign cultures before 1945 than were the Gegs.

Zogu, Ahmet—Served as prime minister and president during the early 1920s; then ruled as King Zog from 1928 until 1939. Was leader of conservative forces composed of landowners, former Ottoman bureaucrats, and tribal chiefs.

---

INDEX

• Abazi, Dede (religious leader): [98]
• administrative divisions: [vii], [33], [34] (fig. 3), [35]
• adult education: [87], [88], [90-91]
• agas: [95]
• agrarian reform: [15], [16], [75];
  • law, [21], [96]
• agreements. See treaties and agreements
• agriculture (see also collective farms, crops, state farms):
  • deterrents to goal attainment, [145];
  • exports, [151], [174];
  • five-year plans, [145], [152], [155-59] passim;
  • imports, [173];
  • investment, [167];
  • land use, acreage, [152];
  • mechanization, [146], [152];
  • new methods, [145], [152];
  • pattern of organization, [146], [151], [153];
  • production, [145], [151-52], [155-56] (tables 10, 11), [157-59];
  • productivity, [149];
  • share of labor force, [147];
  • summary, [viii]
• aid, foreign (see also under specific country and under Communist countries): [3], [4];
  • economic, [146], [169-71];
  • military, [175-79] passim, [190];
  • summary, [ix]
• air force: [180], [184-85]; chief, [184]
• air transport: [ix], [46-47]
• airbases: [184-85]
• Albanian (language): [55-56], [137]
• Albanian Party Political Bureau. See Politburo
• Albanian Telegraphic Agency (news agency): [131-32]
• Albanian Workers' Party (see also Central Committee, Central Commission on Education, Directorate of, Politburo, Secretariat): [v], [1];
  • activists and agitators, [107], [125], [128], [129];
  • book publishing, [134];
  • communication channels, [125];
  • Conference, [114];
  • Congress, [113];
  • control over people and institutions, [2], [93-94], [111], [135], [137], [140], [142], [146], [147], [176], [185-86], [192-93], [194];
  • and the courts, [107];
  • discipline, [114];
  • economic goal, [145];
  • founded, [17];
  • institutes, [117];
  • mass organizations as levers of, [117-18];
  • members in security forces, [193];
  • membership, [115];
  • national and regional organization, [111-15];
  • operations, [115-16];
  • organization within armed forces, [175];
  • political power, [103-04], [106];
  • religious policy, [100];
  • schools, [116-17];
  • slogan, [181];
  • Stalinist methods, [121];
  • statutes, [113-14], [115], [116], [118], [128]
• Albanian Writers' Union: [56]
• Ali, Hafez Musa Haxhi (religious leader): [98]
• Alia, Ramiz (Politburo secretary): [111], [112]
• alphabet, Albanian: [49], [56], [83]
• American Agricultural School (Kavaje): [84]
• American Junior Red Cross: [84]
• American Technical School (Tirana): [84]
• anti-Communists:
  • organizations, [18];
  • records on, [195]
• Antoniu, Kristaq (singer): [142]
• Apponyi, Geraldine (wife of Zog I): [16]
• area: [vii], [1], [25]
• armed forces (see also People's Army): chief of staff, [180];
  • civilian activities, [152], [181];
  • decorations, [187-88];
  • defense budget, [191];
  • equipment, [175], [179], [181-82], [183], [184];
  • foreign aid, [175-79] passim, [190];
  • historical background, [177-79];
  • medical services, [187];
  • military courts, [108];
  • military schools, [186-87];
  • mission, [181];
  • mobilization potential, [185];
  • Party control of, [111], [185-86];
  • Party organization within, [115], [175];
  • political indoctrination of, [185-86], [190];
  • rank designations, [175], [180];
  • resistance to Italian occupation, [178-79];
  • strength, [175], [181], [183], [184];
  • summary, [ix]
• Army of National Liberation: [18], [64], [111]
• arts, fine: [142-43]
• Asdreni, —— (poet): [139]
• Austria-Hungary: [14]
• authority:
  • under communism, [68];
  • traditional attitude toward, [67], [71]
• automobiles: [65]
  
• Bajraktari, Muharem (chieftain): [72]
• bajraktars (tribal chieftains): [67], [71], [74]
• balance of trade, [171]
• Balli Kombetar (National Front): [18], [74], [139];
  • supporters, [72]
• Balluku, Beqir (min. of defense): [111], [180]
• banking: [168-69]
• Bashkimi (newspaper): [129], [130] (table 7)
• Bektashi (religious group): [97], [98]
• Belishova, Liri (former Politburo member): [23]
• besa (pledge): [53]
• beys: [2], [5], [10], [13], [17], [72], [73], [74];
  • creation of the class, [95];
  • during civil war, [74];
  • seizure of their land, [21];
  • social position, [67], [70], [73]
• bibliography: [197-207]
• bicycles: [65]
• birth rate: [51]
• books: publishing and distribution, [133-34]
• boundaries: [25], [26], [31-33];
  • border security (see Frontier Guards);
  • potential for dispute, [4], [9], [31];
  • settlement (1913), [14], [25]
• Broz, Josip (Tito): [19], [21], [22], [122]
• budget (see also expenditures, revenue, taxes): [164-67];
  • defense, [191];
  • responsibility for preparing, [106];
  • social and cultural sectors, [58]
• Buene River: [39], [47], [183]
• Bulgaria: aid and trade, [170], [172]
• Byron, Lord: [96]
  
• Cako, Hito (chief, Army Political Directorate): [186]
• capital goods: output, [160-61]
• Carcani, Adil (Politburo member): [112], [120]
• Central Commission on Education: [92], [94], [112]
• Central Committee: [92], [94], [105], [113], [116], [117], [127];
  • composition, [77], [112];
  • functions, [114];
  • and labor situation, [147], [148], [149];
  • members in Council of Ministers, [106];
  • publications, [129], [131]
• Charles I of Anjou: [11]
• children: welfare provisions, [64]
• China, Communist: aid, economic, [122-23], [160], [170], [171], [172];
  • aid, military, [175], [176-77], [179], [184], [190];
  • debt to, [171];
  • economic effect of alignment with, [146];
  • education and training in, [92];
  • influence, [23];
  • jointly owned shipping line, [47];
  • relations with, [v], [3], [104], [121-23];
  • trade, [172], [174]
• Christianity: introduction, [11], [95]
• chrome: [44]
• Churchill, Winston: [19]
• Ciano, Count (Italian Foreign Min.): [16]
• Cikuli, Ziza (poet): [140]
• cities: growth, [75];
  • population, [49], [50], [51], [56]
• civil war (1943-44): [18-19];
  • fate of anti-Communists, [74]
• clans. See tribes and clans
• clergymen: [73];
  • Communist actions against, [96], [97-98], [99-101]
• climate: [vii], [4], [26], [35], [36] (table 1), [37]
• collective farms: [145], [146], [151];
  • basic features, [153-54];
  • labor force, size, [147], [148];
  • number and size, [154-55];
  • patriarchalism, [80];
  • personal income, [153-54];
  • private plots, [154], [157], [159], [166];
  • work performance, [151-52]
• Cominform. See Communist Information Bureau
• communications (see also press, radio, television): [125-35];
  • ownership, [110];
  • summary, [ix]
• Communist Information Bureau (Cominform): [21], [179]
• Communist countries:
  • aid, [21], [169], [170];
  • education and training in, [91];
  • trade, [172]
• Communist Party. See Albanian Workers' Party
• Communist regime:
  • attitudes toward population growth, ethnic differences, and blood feuds, [51], [53];
  • consolidation of power, [20-23];
  • efforts to alter social structure, [67-69], [73-83];
  • gains claimed, [6], [45], [50], [53], [58], [59], [75], [91], [94], [145], [149], [151], [155], [159], [165-66];
  • goals, [2];
  • installation date, [9];
  • policy toward religious groups, [96], [97], [100]
• Communists: seizure of power, [17-20]
  • concentration camps. See labor camps
• cooperatives: agricultural, [136]
• copper ore: export, [44]
• Conference of Peze (1942): [17]
• Constituent Assembly: People's Republic proclaimed by, [20]
• constitution:
  • first Communist, [20], [74], [86], [96], [113];
  • independence, [14];
  • provisions, [101], [104-08] passim
• consumer goods: output, [161]
• cotton: [151], [155], [156] (table 10)
• Council for Economic Mutual Assistance (CEMA): [21];
  • member, [121]
• Council of Ministers: [132], [134], [150], [164], [179];
  • description, [106];
  • and religious control, [97]
• courts: [107-08];
  • military, [108], [190];
  • summary, [viii]
• crime: [79], [128], [176];
  • military, [190]
• crops (see also specific crop):
  • industrial, [151];
  • production, [155], [156] (table 10);
  • yields, [41]
• culture:
  • achievements, [137-38];
  • development, [135-43];
  • dominant themes under communism, [136];
  • indoctrination through institutions, [135];
  • Party control of activities, [135], [137], [140], [142]
• currency: viii, [167-68]
• Czechoslovakia: [123];
  • aid, [170];
  • trade, [172]
• 
  
• Dako, Kristo (school founder): [84]
• death rate: [51]
• defense: budgetary expenditures, [166]
• Deljana, Thoma (Min., Education and Culture): [88]
  • described, [118-19];
  • newspaper, [129];
  • NLF renamed, [19]
• Democratic Front: [1], [103], [109], [117];
• Dhrami, M. (artist): [143]
• diet: [62]
  • Agitation and Propaganda (Agitprop), [112], [127];
  • Cadres and Organizations, [112];
  • Education and Culture, [92], [94], [112];
  • Mass Organizations, [112];
  • Radiobroadcasting, [132];
  • State Administrative Organs, [112];
  • State Security, [111], [176], [193-94]
• Directorate of:
• disease: [59-60]
• divorce: [79-80]
• doctors: [61]
• drainage. See lakes, rivers
• Drin River: [37], [39], [47], [160], [164]
• Dume, Gen. Petrit (army chief of staff): [180], [192]
  • facilities, [47];
  • population, [51], [57];
  • transportation, [46]
• Durres (port): [11], [183];
• 
  
• East-West conflict: position in, [2], [121]
• economic planning: Communists view of, [110]
  • major objective, [7];
  • status of, [146];
  • summary, [viii]
• economic plans (see also Five-Year Plans): responsibility for preparation, [106]
  • discrimination, [77];
  • eight-year, obligatory, [88-89];
  • first objective, [69];
  • function of information media, [126-27];
  • indoctrination of youth, [69];
  • medical training, [61];
  • military, [88], [90];
  • Party control, [93-94];
  • pre-Communist period, [83-85];
  • reform, [88];
  • and social mobility, [69];
  • status of, [6];
  • summary, [viii];
  • system, [87-89] (fig. 5), [90-94];
  • technical, [86-87]
• economy:
• education (see also schools): [83-94];
• Educational Reform Law (1946): [86]
  • Assembly representatives, [105];
  • candidate selection, [103], [104], [107], [109], [116-17];
  • character and procedure, [108-09];
  • mobilization of voters, [128]
• Elbasan (city): [46], [49], [57]
• elections: [1], [19], [20];
  • ruling, [2], [10], [68], [73], [96], [121]
• electricity. See power, electric
• elite: Party, [64], [69], [77], [78], [106];
  • minor, [54-55]
• employment: [147]
• ethnic groups: [5], [6], [9], [49], [52-55];
  • defense, [191]
• European nations: relations with, [123]; trade, [174]
  • agricultural, [151], [174];
  • industrial, [161], [162], [174];
  • principal, [44];
  • summary, [viii]
• expenditures: [165], [166-67];
• exports: [172], [173-74];
  • under communism, [74];
  • efforts to revolutionize, [68], [81-83];
  • rate of increase in number of, [75];
  • role in politics, [77];
  • as social force, [6];
  • traditional organization, [67], [70-71]
• 
  
• Faja, Baba. See Martaneshi, Baba Mustafa Faja
• family:
• farm credits: [169]
• farms. See collective farms, state farms
• Fejzo, Baba (clergyman): [98]
  • oil refinery and power plant, [160];
  • population, [49], [57]
• fertilizer: [160]
• feuds, blood: [6], [53-54], [71]
• Fier (city):
  • summary, [viii]
• Filce, Gjorgjija (singer): [142]
  • First (1951-55) and Second (1956-60), [159];
  • Third (1961-65), [145], [149], [165], [170];
  • Fourth (1966-70), [145], [152], [155-59] passim, [165], [171], [172];
  • Fifth (1971-75), [164], [171]
• films: [141]
• finance (see also currency, banking, budget): [164-69];
  • prices, [64];
  • processing, [162]
• Five-Year Plans:
• Floqi, Kristo (playwright): [140]
• food:
• foreign aid. See aid, foreign
  • relations with, [23];
  • trade, [173]
• foreign relations: [121-23]
• forests: [26], [41-42]
• France:
• Franciscans: [97], [100], [139]
• Frasheri, Midhat (political leader): [18], [139]
• Frasheri, Naim (writer): [139]
  • citrus, [30];
  • exports, [174];
  • production, [151], [155], [156] (table 10)
• Frasheri, Sami (playwright): [140]
• Frontier Guards: [111], [176], [194]
• fruit:
• Fuga, Myqerem (Institute head): [117]
  
• gas: reserves, [44]
  • ethnic characteristics, [53];
  • population, [52];
  • social structure, [70-72]
• Geg (language): [56], [137]
• Gega, Lira (former Politburo member): [22]
• Gegs (ethnic group): [6];
• Germany: resistance to occupation by, [179]
• Germany, East: aid and trade, [170], [172]
  • appointment of officials, [116];
  • character of, [1], [103], [104], [108];
  • local, [106-07];
  • Party control of, [103], [104], [106];
  • structure, [104-07];
  • summary, [vii]
• Gjata, Fatmir (writer): [140]
• glossary: [209]
• government:
  • Albanians living in, [55];
  • boundary claim, [14], [26];
  • relations with, [9], [123];
  • shared border, [25], [31], [32];
  • trade, [173]
• grain: bread grain production, [151], [155], [156] (table 10)
• Great Britain: [178]
• Greece:
• Greeks (ethnic group): [54]
• gross industrial product (GIP): minerals share, [44]
• gross national product (GNP): per capita, [50]
• Gypsies: [54], [55]
  
• harbors: [183]
  • facilities, [61];
  • military medicine, [187];
  • mobile medical teams and equipment, [61];
  • personnel and training, [61];
  • services, [58];
  • status of, [6], [50], [59-62];
  • summary, [viii]
• Hasbiu, Gen. Kadri: [77], [111], [193]
• Hasko, Arif (air force chief): [184]
• health and medicine:
• history: [9-23]
• Hitler, Adolf: [17]
• holidays: [10], [78]
  • investment, [167];
  • loans, [169];
  • status, [51], [62-63]
• hospitals: [61]
  • passim, [136], [142];
  • relation to defense establishment, [180];
  • relation to security police, [193];
  • rise to leadership, [179]
• houses: description, [63]
• housing:
• Hoxha, Enver (Party first secretary): [1], [3], [11], [17-23] passim, [53], [62], [77], [80], [84], [88], [100-05] passim, [111], [115-27]
• Hoxha (Enver) United Army Officers School: [186]
• Hoxha, Nexhmije (Party official): [77], [93], [112], [117]
• Hoxha-Shehu duumvirate: overthrow attempt, [22]
  • potential, [40], [162], [163];
  • station, [159], [160], [164]
• Hungary: [172]
• Hunyadi (Hungarian king): [12]
• hydroelectric power:
• 
  
  • collective farm workers, [153-54];
  • national, major source, [7];
  • taxes, [165]
• identification cards: [195]
  • proclaimed, [14]
• illiteracy: [7], [86], [94], [126]
• imports: viii, [172], [173]
  • budgetary expenditures, [166], [167];
  • construction projects, [159], [160];
  • deterrents to development, [161];
  • exports, [161], [162], [174];
  • five-year plans, [159], [164],170;
• income:
  • nationalization, [21], [110];
  • production, [160-63] (table 12);
  • productivity, [149-50], [161];
  • progress toward goal, [145];
  • structure, [160];
  • summary, [viii]
• independence: [2], [3], [9], [10], [13-16], [139], [176], [177];
• indoctrination: political and social, [69], [126], [135], [140], [147], [185-86], [190]
• industry: [146], [159-64];
• imports, [173];
• infant mortality: [50], [60]
• information media (see also press, radio, television): functions, ownership, and control, [2], [125-29]
• Institute for Economic Studies: [117]
• Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies: [117]
• Institute of Party History: [117]
• intellectuals: [73], [76-77]
• interest rate: [169]
• investment: budgetary expenditures, [167]
  • aid, military, [178], [192];
  • and Albanian independence, [13-14];
  • invasion and annexation by, [3], [9], [16-17];
  • relations with, [9], [16], [23], [121];
  • resistance to occupation by, [178-79];
  • trade, [173]
• iron: [44]
• irrigation: [40], [152], [153]
• Islam. See Muslim religion
• Italy:
• 
  
• Jakova, Tonin (trade union officer): [120]
• Jakova, Tuk (former Politburo member): [100]
• Jesuits: [83], [97]
• judges: election of, [108]
• justice (see also courts): summary, [viii]
  
• Kapo, Hysni (Party official): [77], [82], [112], [117], [118]
• Kapo, Vito (women's organization head): [77], [119]
• Kastrioti, Gjergj. See Skanderbeg
• Kastrioti, John of Kruje (tribal chieftain): [12]
• Kellezi, Abdyl (chmn., People's Assembly): [105]
• Khrushchev, Nikita: [22], [23], [122]
• Kisi, Archbishop Kristofor: [98]
• Koliqi, Ernest (playwright): [140]
• Kominino, Gjergi (poet): [140]
• Kono, Kristro (composer): [142]
• Korce (city): [51], [57]
  • summary, [vii];
  • voluntary, [150-51], [162]
• Kosmet: disposition of, [18]
• Kosovo area (Yugoslavia): [31], [33]
• Kryeziu, Gani bey (chieftain): [73]
• Kupi, Abas (founder, political organization): [18]
  
  • adequacy, [146-47];
  • attitude toward employment, [148];
  • attitude toward industrial modernization, [161];
  • education and indoctrination, [147], [161-62];
  • effect of socialization of the land, [151];
  • labor norms, [150];
  • nonagricultural workers, [73];
  • Party control over, [146], [147];
  • productivity and discipline, [147-50] passim, [161];
  • size and distribution, [147-48];
  • working conditions, [78]
• labor (see also labor force):
• labor brigades (youth): [118]
  • in agricultural use, [152];
  • arable, [26], [41];
  • private plots, [154], [157], [159], [166];
  • reclamation and melioration, [152];
  • seizure and redistribution, [21];
  • socialization, [151]
• labor camps: [20], [74], [77], [98], [193], [194]
  • foreign broadcasts, [132-33];
  • official, [56];
  • summary, [viii]
• Labor Code: [110]
• labor force:
  • supporters, [72]
• lakes: [31], [32], [38] (fig. 4), [39], [47]
• land:
• language: [49], [55-56];
• League for Defense of Rights of the Albanian Nation: [13]
• Legality Movement: [18], [74];
• lek (currency): exchange rates, [167]
• Lenin (V. I.) Institute: [117]
• Leshi, Haxhi (head of state): [72], [105]
  • production, [152], [155], [156] (table 11), [157-58]
• libraries: [134-35]
• life expectancy: [51]
• limestone: [30], [31], [44]
• literature: [138-40]
• livestock and livestock products: [154];
• living conditions: [49-50], [58-65]
• loans and credits: [169], [170-71]
  
• machine tractor stations: [146], [153], [165]
  • attitude toward industrial modernization, [161];
  • and productivity lag, [149-50]
• machinery: [161]
  • under communism, [74];
  • customs, [68], [71];
  • laws and rate, [79]
• malaria: [59]
• malnutrition: [60]
  • teaching of, [86], [87], [88], [94], [117], [119], [126], [128-29], [135]
• Mana, A. (sculptor): [143]
• management:
• marriage:
• Martaneshi, Baba Mustafa Faja (clergyman): [98]
• Marxism-Leninism: [67], [68], [104], [121], [122];
• medical services. See health and medicine
• midwives: [61]
• migration: [51], [75], [148]
  • Education and Culture, [87], [93], [134], [137], [141], [142];
  • Foreign Affairs, [134];
  • Health, [59], [60], [61];
  • Interior, [115], [176], [190], [193], [194];
  • National Defense, [134];
  • People's Defense, [115], [175], [176], [179], [186]
• Mijo, Sokrat (theater entrepreneur): [140]
• Mijo, Vangjush (artist): [142]
• military training (see also schools, military): in school system, [88], [90]
• minerals: [30], [31], [44], [160], [173]
• Ministry of:
• Mjeda, Dom Ndre (poet): [139]
  • conversion to under Ottomans, [12], [67], [94-95];
  • number of members, [95]
• Mugosha, Dusan (Party founder): [17]
• Mukaj agreement (political parties): [18]
• museums: [135]
  • seizure of government, [19]
• music: [141-42]
  • created, [17];
  • supporters, [72], [73]
• Muslim religion: [7];
• Mussolini, Benito: [16]
  
  • effect on social structure, [75];
  • of industry, [21], [141];
  • information media, [126];
  • of schools, [84]
• name of country: vii, [11]
  • commander, [182]
• National Liberation Front: [1], [175];
• National Liberation Movement: [103], [139], [179];
• nationalism: [5], [9], [126], [136], [139], [175], [177]
• nationalization:
• naval forces: [180], [182-84];
• Ndoja, Mark (poet): [140]
• Ndreu, Dalli (former Gen.): [22]
• Near East Foundation: [84]
• Nendori (literary monthly): [100], [101]
• news agency: [131-32]
• newspapers: [129], [130] (table 7)
• Nigris, Monsignor (apostolic nuncio): [99]
• Nikon, Bishop: [99]
• Noli, Bishop Fan S.: [15], [16], [73], [139]
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): [176]
  • production, [163] (table 12);
  • refinery, [160];
  • reserves, [44]
• nurseries (day care): [68], [148]
  • anti-communist, [18];
  • mass, [117-21]
• nurses: [61]
  • members, [95]
• Nushi, Gogo (president, trade unions): [120]
• nutrition: [62]
  
• oil:
• organizations:
• Orthodox Church of Albania: [7], [67], [98];
• Ottoman rule: [3], [12-13]
  
• Paco, J. (sculptor): [143]
• Paisi, Archbishop: [99]
  • creation of the class, [95];
  • social leadership, [70]
• Paluca, Maria (singer): [142]
• paramilitary training: [188-90]
• Pasha, Mehmet Ali (governor of Egypt): [12]
  • efforts to eradicate, [68], [80-83]
• Pasha, Pasko Vasa (playwright): [140]
  • attitude toward collectivism and modern methods, [145], [151], [157], [158], [159];
  • conditions under communism, [78-79];
  • religion, [95]
• pashas: [2], [5], [13];
  • organizational patterns, [180];
  • position in government, [179-80];
  • rank designations, [180-81];
  • strength, ix, [181], [183], [184];
  • training and paramilitary training, [182-90] passim
• Paskal, Odhise (sculptor): [142]
  • aim and sphere of action, [109];
  • description, [104-05];
  • power and influence, [110]
• pastures: [41], [152]
  • description, [106-07];
  • as Party levers, [117-18]
• patriarchalism: [67];
• peasants:
• People's army (see also air force, naval forces): ground forces, [181-82];
• People's Assembly: [106], [108], [116], [164], [179-80], [190];
• People's councils:
• People's Police: [111], [176], [195]
• periodicals: [130], [131] (table 8)
• Pioneer organizations: [118]
• pipeline: xiv (fig. 1), [44], [46]
  • communication media policy, [127];
  • composition, [77];
  • and the educational system, [92];
  • and the labor situation, [148], [150];
  • members in Council of Ministers, [106];
  • Secretariat, [111];
  • top executive branches, [111]
• Plasari, Ndreci (institute head): [117]
  • and creation of the modern state, [15-17];
  • historical background, [5-6];
  • locus of power, [2], [103], [108-11] passim;
  • role of family connections, [77];
  • the system, [108-21]
• poetry: [139]
• Poland: [172]
  • control by Party and police, [2], [93-94], [137], [146], [176], [192-93], [194];
  • ethnic composition, [1], [5], [6], [9], [49], [52-55];
  • growth rate, [49], [51];
  • rural character, [50], [56];
  • social composition, [76] (table 4);
  • statistics, [1], [49], [50-52] (table 3);
  • summary, [vii];
  • working age, [147]
• police. See Directorate of State Security, Frontier Guards, People's Police
• Politburo: [21], [105], [112], [113];
• politics:
• Popovic, Miladin (Party founder): [17]
  • extent of use, [50], [58], [162], [163] (table 12);
  • insufficiency, [44];
  • production, [163] (table 12), [164];
  • thermal plant, [160], [162]
• population:
• Poradeci, Lasgush (poet): [139]
  • description, [105-06], [111];
  • president, [72], [105]
• ports: ix; facilities, [47]
  • use for Party purposes, [126-27]
• potatoes: [155], [156] (table 10)
• power, electric (see also hydroelectric power):
• Prennushi, P. Vincenc (poet): [139]
• Presidium: [108];
  • foreign broadcasting, [132-33];
  • receivers and stations, [132], [133] (table 9);
  • use for Party purposes, [126-27]
• press: [125-28] passim, [129-32];
• prices: consumer commodities, [64-65]
• proletariat: dictatorship of, [108-11]
• Puna (newspaper): [129], [130] (table 7)
  
• radio:
• Radio Tirana: [v], [132]
• railroads: ix, xiv (fig. 1), [45-46]
  • under Communists, [96-102];
  • eradication efforts, [7], [69], [96-102];
  • law to control, [96-97];
  • summary, [viii];
  • traditional attitudes toward differences, [67], [96];
  • wealth confiscation, of religious bodies, [96]
• rainfall: [4], [26], [27], [29], [35], [36] (table 1), [37]
  • ownership, [110]
• Rama, K. (artist): [143]
• Red Cross: [61]
• regions, natural: [26-31]
• religion (see also clergymen, Orthodox Church, Muslim religion, Roman Catholic Church): [5];
• resources, natural: [41-44];
• revenue: [164], [165-66]
  • actions against, [99-100];
  • membership, [95]
• rice: [155], [156] (table 10)
• rivers: [37], [38] (fig. 4), [39-40] (table 2)
• roads: ix, xiv, (fig. 1), [25], [27], [45]
• Rockefeller Foundation: [59]
• Roman Catholic Church: [7], [67];
• Romania: aid and trade, [170], [172]
• Rruga e Partise (Party monthly): [117], [127], [131]
  • air base, [185];
  • Sea Defense Brigade, [183]
• Russia: [13], [14]
  
  • Catholic, [99];
  • enrollment, [91], [92] (table 5), [93] (table 6);
  • higher institutes, [86], [90], [93] (table 6);
  • military, [186-87];
  • nationalization, [84];
  • number of, [92] (table 5);
  • paramilitary training, [188-90];
  • Party, [116-17];
  • pre-Communist period, [83-85];
  • secondary, [90]
• Sako, Zihni (writer): [140]
  • control of population by, [176], [192-93];
  • Party control of, [111];
  • summary, [ix]
• salt: [44]
• sanitation: [58], [62]
• Sazan Island:
• schools:
• security forces (see also Directorate of State Security, Frontier Guards, People's Army, People's Police): [175-95];
• Sejko, Teme (former naval commander): [22], [190]
• Semen River: [39]
• settlement: patterns, [4], [49], [56-58]
• Shehu, Fiqrete (Party school head): [77], [117]
• Shehu, Mehmet (Prime Minister): [1], [22], [77], [84], [88], [90], [92], [103], [104], [105], [111], [116], [122]
  • population, [51], [57];
  • theater, [140]
• Shehu (Mehmet) Military Academy: [187]
• Shijak: airbase, [184]
• Shijaku, S. (artist): [143]
• shipping: [47]
• Shkoder (city):
• Siliqi, Llazar (poet): [140]
  • character of, [1-7];
  • under communism, [68], [73-83];
  • structure, [67-102];
  • traditional patterns and values, [67], [69-73];
  • by type of employment, [76] (table 4)
• Skanderbeg (national hero): [5], [10], [12], [138], [175], [177]
• Skanderbeg military school: [186]
  • aid, economic, [7], [122], [141], [154], [169], [170];
  • aid, military, [175], [176], [179], [183], [184], [192];
  • break with, [122];
  • debt to, [170];
  • de-Stalinization campaign repercussions, [21];
  • education and training in, [61], [87], [91];
  • farm model, [153];
  • relations with, [v], [2], [3], [21], [23], [104], [112], [121], [122], [123];
  • trade, [172]
• Skenderi, Vehbi (poet): [140]
• social insurance, [63-64]
• society (see also authority, divorce, elite, family, marriage, peasants, tribes and clans, women, youth):
• soils: [26], [41]
• Soviet Union:
• Spahiu, Xhafer (Politburo secretary): [111]
  • labor force size, [147];
  • number and size, [154];
  • private plots, [154], [157], [159], [166]
• Stalin, Joseph V.: [19], [22], [121], [122], [140], [142], [192], [193]
• Stalin (formerly Kucove): pipeline from, [44], [46]
  • enrollment, [91];
  • established, [137-38];
  • Faculty of Jurisprudence, [74];
  • Faculty of Medicine, [61];
  • Library, [135];
  • Linguistics and History Institute, [56];
  • paramilitary training, [188]
• Stalin-Tito rupture: [21]
• standard of living: [7], [49-50], [58]
• state farms: [146], [151], [153];
• State Planning Commission: [58], [146], [150]
• State University of Tirana:
• status: social mobility, [69]
• steel-rolling mill: [160]
• Stratoberdha, Llazi (Directorate head): [112]
• sugar beets: [151], [155], [156] (table 10)
• sugar mill: [159]
  • and property confiscation, [20];
  • turnover tax, [165], [166]
• summary: [vii-ix]
  • number of, [91], [92] (table 5);
  • Party membership, [94];
  • training, [83], [87]
• Sunni (religious group): [97], [98]
  
• Tashko, Koco (former Party Leader): [23]
• Tashko, Tefta (singer): [142]
• taxes: [164], [165-66];
• teachers:
  • mills, [159], [160];
  • production, [163], (table 12)
• television: [125], [133]
• temperature: [36] (table 1)
  • airbase, [xiv] (fig. 1), [184];
  • description, [57];
  • population, [51], [56], [57];
  • transportation, [46]
• Tepelena, Ali Pasha (Lion of Yannina): [13]
• textbooks: [86], [87]
• textiles:
• theater: [140-41]
• Tirana (capital city):
• Tito. See Broz, Josip
  • characteristics, [53], [54];
  • social structure, [70-72]
• Tittoni-Venizelos Agreement: [15]
• tobacco: [151], [155], [156] (table 10)
  • agreements, [173]
• topography: [vii], [4], [26-27], [28] (fig. 2), [29]
  • Agriculture and Procurements, [120];
  • Education and Trade, [120];
  • Industry and Construction, [120]
• Tosk: official language, [49], [56], [137]
  • administration of social insurance activities, [63];
  • and control of labor, [147]
• Tosks (ethnic group): [6], [52];
• tractors (see also machine tractor stations): spare parts, [160]
  • problems, [4-5];
  • status, [44-47];
  • systems, [xiv] (fig. 1)
• trade, foreign: [146], [171-74];
  • boundary, [14], [15], [32];
  • defense, [16];
  • summary, [ix];
  • trade, [173]
• Trade Union Workers:
• trade unions (see also United Trade Unions): [120];
• Trako, Konstantine (composer): [142]
  • description, [70];
  • social patterns and values, [69-73]
• transportation:
• treaties and agreements, international:
• Treaty of San Stefano: [13]
• trials: accessibility, [107]
  • described, [118];
  • newspaper, [129];
  • paramilitary training, [190]
• tribes and clans:
• tuberculosis: [60]
• Turkey: Ottoman rule period, [12-13]
  
• Union of Albanian Women: [117], [119]
  • Albanians living in, [55];
  • relations with, [23], [122]
• Union of Albanian Working Youth: [1], [93], [115], [117], [175];
  • description, [120]
• Union of Artists and Writers: [137], [142]
• unions. See trade unions, United Trade Unions
  • government policy, [50-51], [147-48]
• United Nations: Communist China mouthpiece in, [v]; Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA): [59]
• United States:
  • exports, [174];
  • production, [151], [156] (table 10)
• United Trade Unions: [1], [117], [129];
• university. See State University of Tirana
• urbanization: [56], [75];
  • description, [57-58];
  • electric power, [58];
  • health services, [61-62];
  • population, [49], [56]
• 
  
• values: traditional, [69-73] passim
• vegetables:
  • airbase, [185];
  • facilities, [47];
  • pipeline to, [44], [46];
  • population, [51], [57];
  • Sea Defense Brigade, [183];
  • transportation, [46]
• vegetation: [26], [41]
• Vijose River: [37], [39]
• villages:
• Vlachs (ethnic group): [54-55]
• Vlora, Ismail Qemal bey (independence leader): [3], [14]
• Vlore (port):
  • East-West conflict, position, [2], [121];
  • relations with, [23];
  • trade, [172], [173]
• vocational and technical training: [86-87]
• Vodica, Pashko (clergyman): [98]
• voting: constitutional provision, [108]
  
• wages: [64]
  • attitudes toward, [81], [82], [148];
  • and blood feuds, [6], [71];
  • mobilization potential, [185];
  • paramilitary training, [189];
  • part in production and government, [119];
  • position in society, [54], [119];
  • rights, [119-20];
  • social changes under communism, [68];
  • union of women, [117], [119];
  • welfare benefits, [64]
• Warsaw Pact: [121], [123], [176], [192]
• West, the:
• Wied, Prince Wilhelm zu: [15]
• wildlife: [43]
• Wilson, Woodrow: [15]
• women and girls:
• workers' compensation: [64]
  • antireligious mission, [100], [118];
  • attitudes toward, [82];
  • organizations, [118];
  • paramilitary training, [188-90]
• World War I: [3], [15], [32], [121], [177]
• World War II: [45], [50], [62-63], [175], [178-79]
  
  • aid, economic, [169];
  • aid, military, [176], [179], [192];
  • Albanians living in, [55];
  • influence, [21];
  • relations with, [v], [2], [3], [9], [22], [23], [104], [121], [122], [123];
  • shared border, [25], [32];
  • trade, [173]
• Xoxe, Jakov (writer): [140]
• Xoxe, Koci (government official): [21], [22], [193]
  
• Ylli (periodical): [131]
• youth (see also Pioneer organizations, Union of Albanian Working Youth):
• Yugoslav Communist Party: [17], [18], [19]
• Yugoslavia:
• 
  
• Zengo, Androniqi (artist): [142]
• Zeqir, Ymer (commander, naval forces): [182]
• Zeri I Popullit (Party's official daily): [80], [81], [91], [121], [129]
• Zeri i Rinise (newspaper): [129], [130] (table 7)
• Zicishti, Mihalaq (chief, State Security): [193]
• Zogu, Ahmet (King Zog I): [15], [16], [70], [72], 73, [178]