Obv.: Head of Drusus. Rev.: The Trophy of Arms taken from the Germans.
Obv.: Head of Livia. Rev.: Head of Julia.
To face page 130.
CHAPTER VIII
THE NEW CONSTITUTION, B.C. 30-23
Hic ames dici pater atque princeps.
The new constitution.
The seven years which followed the death of Antony and Cleopatra witnessed the settlement of the new constitution in its most important points. It has been called a dyarchy, the two parties to it being the Emperor and the Senate. They were not, however, at any time of equal power. As far as it was possible Augustus rested his various functions on the same foundation as those of the Republican magistrates, and treated the Senate with studious respect. But in spite of all professions, in spite even of himself, he became a monarch, whose will was only limited by those forces of circumstance and sentiment to which the most autocratic of sovereigns have at times been forced to bow. The important epochs in this reconstruction are the years B.C. 29, 27, 23; but it will be necessary sometimes to anticipate the course of events and to speak at once of what often took many years to develop.
Reduction of the army.
The reduction of the vast armaments which the various phases of the civil war had called into existence was made possible by the wealth which the possession of Egypt put into Cæsar’s hands. Though Egypt became a Roman province it was from the first in a peculiar position, governed by a “prefect” appointed by the Emperor, who took as his private property both the treasures and domain lands of the Ptolemaic kings and the balance of the revenues over the expenses. This formed the nucleus of what was afterwards called the fiscus,[214] the imperial revenue as distinguished from the ærarium or public treasury. He was thus enabled to disband many legions at once, without the dangerous discontent of the veterans, or the irritation of fresh confiscations. It was imperatively necessary to do this if he wished to avoid the dangers which had so often threatened the State from leaders of overgrown military forces. The number of legions under arms during the preceding ten years was indeed formidable. In B.C. 36, when Cæsar took over those of Lepidus and Sextus Pompeius, he had forty-four or forty-five legions under his command.[215] Between that time and the war with Antony he had reduced the number to eighteen. But after the victory at Actium and the death of Antony, the legions taken over from him, along with those newly raised for the war, again amounted to fifty. Therefore Cæsar had twice to deal with a body of about 250,000 men. He says himself that in the course of his wars half a million citizens had taken the military oath to him. The wealth of Egypt served to purchase lands or compensate towns for such as were taken for the veterans. From first to last more than 300,000 men were provided for in this way.[216] An important purpose also served by this measure was the repeopling of Italy and the renovation of many towns which during the civil wars, or from other causes, had fallen into decay. Republican precedent was followed by recalling the ancient practice of settling “colonies” in the Italian towns, but with this difference, that the new colonists were usually treated as a supplementum of an already existing colonia, lands being purchased for them from private owners or from the communities. Augustus claims twenty-eight of such Italian colonies, of which thirteen are known to have been in past times “Roman” or “Latin” colonies. Other towns, besides a money compensation, were rewarded by being raised to the status of a colony, generally with the addition of “Iulia” or “Augusta” to their name. This system was presently extended beyond Italy—to Africa, Spain, Sicily, Illyricum, Macedonia, Achaia, Gallia Narbonensis, Asia, Syria, and Pisidia. Settlements in these countries were all colonies of veterans, except Dyrrachium, which was filled with dispossessed Italians. This was not altogether a novelty: for extra-Italian colonies had been already established in Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, at Carthage, and at Corinth. Iulius Cæsar is said to have settled 80,000 citizens in this way outside Italy. The extra-Italic colonies of Augustus, however, differed from these last in regard to status. They had what was called Latinitas, that is, citizenship without the right of voting or holding office at Rome. In virtue of this citizenship they came under the Roman law and belonged to the assize (conventus) of the provincial governors. Some of them, again, had the special privileges which were summed up in the general term “Italic right” (ius Italicum), and included freedom from the jurisdiction of the provincial governor (libertas), and exemption from tribute (immunitas). The general aim seems to have been to put the extra-Italic colonies as far as possible in the same position as those in Italy. As a rule also the veterans settled in a colony had been enlisted in the province, and had, therefore, already local connections. Augustus took trouble in fostering and adorning these towns, whether in Italy or the provinces, and records with pride that many had become populous cities during his lifetime. In many cases their subsequent importance shewed that they had been well selected. Thus Carthage had a great mediæval history; Durazzo and Philippi were long places of consequence; Saragossa, Merida, Cordova, Aix, Patras, Beyroot, all trace their prosperity to the colonisation of Augustus.[217]