Sanitary Statistics of Native Colonial Schools and Hospitals

by Florence Nightingale

Physical prostration, in fact, seems to follow the attempt to imitate the customs of civilized society; and, as I had abundant opportunity of observing in British Guiana among the Indians, the wearing of clothes and adoption of a more settled mode of life detracts from skill in hunting or fishing without imparting sufficient knowledge of or taste for agricultural pursuits to afford a livelihood in exchange.

HENRY BARKLY.

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• 1. Although the aborigines of this colony are liable to the usual diseases of Europeans, I invariably found years back that they seldom had the common diseases, as rheumatism, &c., &c., to the extent Europeans have. Yet I may state, that eight-tenths of the mortality amongst the aborigines of Victoria arises through intemperance, bringing on pulmonary disorders, pleurisy, pneumonia, disorders of the chest, consumption, &c., which carries them off so speedily that the ablest medical treatment, when available, seldom saves them. I may safely state that when their respiratory organs are once affected recovery becomes hopeless. I have witnessed this so invariably within the last 10 years, as to look forward for death as soon as they are afflicted in the chest.
• 2. The aborigines, however, were not so affected in their respiratory organs years back as at present; they have only been carried off so precipitately since they have become slaves to intoxicating liquors. I have known blacks, years back, to labour under diseases of the lungs for nine or more months, but now seldom so many weeks, and often not so many days.
• 3. There is a peculiarity even in their pulmonary disorders to the European; there is not that straining distressing coughing which Europeans labour under; the phlegm comes free without much exertion and pain to the invalid, but accompanied with blood.
• 4. Wounds of whatever kind which do not affect a vital part are more readily cured than in white people. I have seen most desperate wounds inflicted by their weapons, that would have kept Europeans for months invalids, healed in an incredibly short time, and to the astonishment of medical men. Wounds, whether by accident or otherwise, are immediately attended to by their doctors; if in the fleshy part of the body, they suck the blood from the wound, and continue sucking it till blood ceases to be extracted. If little blood comes from {57} the wound they know all is not right, and will put the patient to pain by probing the wound with their lancet (a sharp bone), or place the body or limb in that position as to compress the opposite part to force blood. They know well the consequences of stagnant blood or matter, especially in the upper parts of the body. When the wound is thoroughly cleansed they leave the rest to nature, clap a lump of pidgerong (a kind of wax oozing from trees) on the wound; should there follow a gathering, they open the wound afresh, and see all right, and again cover it over with the pidgerong or gum.
• 5. Rheumatism.—Their general remedy is friction. If very severe about legs or thighs, the doctor gets a good mound prepared of ashes, excavating the ground 18 inches, made solely from bark, which never has any grit, but mere ash. If lumbago, the patient is laid on his stomach, the doctor rubs most unmercifully the hot ashes on the part affected, as a butcher would in salting meat; if in thighs or legs, the patient’s feet are put into the mound of heated ashes, about half way up his legs, where he sits whilst the doctor is rubbing the hot ashes on the parts affected. During this process the doctor is incantating, blowing occasionally a portion of dust into the air with a hissing noise. When sufficiently operated upon, the invalid is wrapped up in his blanket.
• 6. Boils.—The blacks treat boils and swellings thus:—When hard, they lotion the part well with decoction of wattle bark; when obstinate, they boil wild marshmallow, and poultice; if the tumour softens and does not break, they apply their sharp bone lancet.
• 7. Eruptions on the Skin.—The aborigines are deeply afflicted with a disorder called by them bubberum, white men call it itch, but it is in no way like it; it appears as a raised dark scab, and spreads, joining each other, till it in severe cases covers almost all the lower extremities. It seldom affects the head or upper parts, but I have known it almost cover the thighs and downwards, so as to cause them much difficulty in moving about. Their native cure for this distemper is to grease the parts affected every night and morning with wheerup (a red ochre) mixed with a decoction of wattle bark. I knew one instance of this disease becoming most distressing to a white man in a respectable position who was continually cohabiting with black lubras.
• 8. On Burns.—Through their imprudence and carelessness they often get severe burns, which they cure by dabbing the parts over with melted fat, afterwards dash the parts affected over with a pulp made of oppossum fur and dust of the wheerup.
• 9. On Dysentery.—The aborigines of Australia are very subject to dysentery, but not to the fatal extent as Europeans; their remedy of this disorder is drinking plentifully a decoction of wattle bark and eating gum through the day, and pills night and morning made by themselves of wattle bark and gum.
• 10. Pains in the Head, Bilious, &c.—If of long standing, the patient is compelled to lie on the back; the native doctor puts his foot on the patient’s head above his neck as long as the patient can bear it, till water literally gushes from the patient’s eyes. However rough this treatment, I have known this operation to give relief, and the patient cured.
• 11. Disorders of the Lungs, Spitting of Blood, &c.—The blacks study much the colour of the spittle in those affected in the lungs, and know well its stages. When the patient begins to spit blood, there is much attention paid to him; should this increase, which generally is the case, the native doctors have a consultation. When once the black doctors hold a consultation, they will not let the patient take any more medicine from the whites. The invalid is laid down on his back, is held firm by three or more blacks, whilst the native doctor keeps continually pressing with his feet, even to jump, on the patient’s belly. I need scarcely state that this cruel practice brings on premature death.
• 12. Venereal Disease.—Though this disease in the first instance must have been contracted from the whites, the native doctors have prescribed a cure, which, though simple, I have found efficacious. They boil the wattle bark till it becomes very strong; they use it as a lotion to the parts affected. I can state here from my own personal knowledge of three Golburn blacks having this disease so deeply rooted in them, that the then colonial surgeon, Dr. Cousin, on examining them said life would not be saved unless they entered into the hospital, and an operation performed, which they would not consent to. After 18 months these three blacks returned to Melbourne among the tribes (two {58} were young, the other middle aged,) perfectly cured, and the blacks assured me they had used only the wattle bark lotion. Dr. Wilmot, our late coroner, also saw these three blacks whilst in this state and after their soundness, and in his report upon the aborigines stated “however violent this disease may appear among aborigines, that it could not enter into their system as it did in European constitutions.”
• 13. In the aboriginal primitive state in times of sickness, as influenza or other diseases prevalent, they invariably carried fire about with them wherever they went; this was of bark only; a thick bark, which they provided for the day’s journey.
• 14. Fevers.—The aboriginal doctors’ treatment in fevers is strictly the cold water system; no matter what kind of fever it may be, cold water is the remedy, accompanied with prohibition of animal food. The doctors have a quantity of water by them, fill their mouths full, spurt it from the mouth over the whole of the patient’s body, back and front, and for a considerable time to the navel, then with their hands throw it over the face and breast; then lay the patient on the back, breathe and blow at the navel, incantating continually while operating. If the patient be young, the doctor will carry him, and plunge him or her into the creek or river. The adult patients will voluntarily, by the assistance of their friends, plunge themselves in three or four times a day. The blacks obstinately persist in this mode of treatment, although they find generally death is the result. I was not a little surprised to find many years back that this also was the mode of treatment among the natives of the South Sea Islands. As soon as fever attacked them, they crept to the banks of the Yarra, and plunged themselves in three or more times a day, as the aboriginals of Australia. I was called to witness their habits when a party of them were enticed over by the late Mr. Boyd; they were located at Mr. Fennel’s (Mr. Boyd’s agent) by the banks of the Yarra.
• 15. I attach to this report on the diseases of the aborigines the opinions of 29 gentlemen, situated in various parts of the colony, who one and all bear testimony to the awful mortality amongst them.
• Names.
• Diseases.
• Mr. Orr
• Intemperance and venereal.
• "  Lane
• Scorbutic.
• "  Templeton
• Intemperance and venereal.
• "  Sherard
• Intemperance and exposure.
• "  Shuter
• Consumption and decline.
• "  Wilson
• Intemperance and exposure.
• "  Feskin
• Bronchitis, pericarditis, psoriasis, and intemperance.
• "  McLeod
• Intemperance and exposure.
• "  Ormond
• Consumption, venereal, and intemperance.
• "  Cook
• Syphilis.
• "  Aitkin
• Liver complaints; intemperance; rheumatism.
• "  Skene
• Syphilis, consumption, and rheumatism.
• "  Beveridge
• Pulmonary consumption and venereal.
• "  Allen
• Influenza.
• "  Craig
• Influenza, consumption, and intemperance.
• "  Gilles
• Intemperance.
• "  Strutt
• Intemperance and violence.
• "  J. M. Allan
• Influenza; inflammation of lungs; venereal.
• "  Godfrey
• Drunkenness; consumption; venereal.
• "  Gottreux
• Bronchitis; affection of the chest.
• "  Currie
• Pulmonary complaints; intemperance.
• "  Lydiard
• Syphilis; intemperance; rheumatism.
• "  Stewart
• Consumption; intemperance.
• "  Mitchell
• Pulmonary consumption; venereal.
• "  Coake
• Consumption and old age.
• "  Huou
• Influenza; intemperance.
• "  Wills (Omeo)
• Intemperance; gun-shot wounds; venereal.
• "  Feath­er­ston­haugh.
• Pulmonary; venereal.
• "  Lewes
• Atrophy; influenza.
• 16. A return from a public hospital, I deem, would be a fair criterion for the Central Board, embracing the two points, mortality and diseases.
• RETURN of ABORIGINAL NATIVES admitted into the Melbourne Hospital from 1st January to 8th November to date.
• DATE.
• NAME.
• TRIBE.
• DISEASE.
• REMARKS.
• April 17
• Tommy Buckley
• Gipps’ Ld.
• Burnt back
• Discharged, July 20
• July 4
• Maria
• Yarra
• Pneumonia
• Discharged, July 24
• September 14
• James Shaw
• Hopkins’ R.
• Pleurisy; Phthisis.
• Died, October 21
• September 18
• Sandy
• Sydney
• Pneumonia and Phthisis.
• Died, September 25
• October 30
• Tommy Buckley
• Gipps’ Ld.
• Pneumonia and Phthisis.
• Died, November 2
• October 30
• Tommy Nannering
• Yarra
• Pneumonia and Phthisis.
• Died, November 2
• 4 deaths, and 2 discharged.
• RETURN showing the Number of Aboriginal Natives who have died in the Yarra and Western Port Districts from the 1st April 1839 to the 31st December 1859, distinguishing Sexes, Tribes, &c.
• ——
• Yarra Tribe.
• Western Port Tribe.
• Other Tribes journeying.
• TOTAL.
• Grand Total.
• REMARKS.
• M.
• F.
• M.
• F.
• M.
• F.
• M.
• F.
• 1 April 1839 to 1 Mar. 1840
• 4
• 1
• 4
• 3
• 2
• 1
• 10
• 5
• 15
• 1 murdered.
• 1 Mar. 1840 to 1 Mar. 1841
• 1
• —
• 1
• 1
• 4
• —
• 6
• 1
• 7
• 2 murdered; 1 shot himself; 2 shot by authorities; 1 died in jail.
• 1 Mar. 1841 to 1 Mar. 1842
• 6
• 3
• 1
• 2
• 5
• 2
• 12
• 7
• 19
• 2 murdered; 2 died of grief; 1, after leg amputated; 2 executed.
• 1 Mar. 1842 to 1 Mar. 1843
• 4
• 2
• 1
• 1
• 2
• —
• 7
• 3
• 10
• 1 executed.
• 1 Mar. 1843 to 1 Mar. 1844
• 2
• 5
• 3
• 3
• 2
• 2
• 7
• 10
• 17
• 1 died by violence.
• 1 Mar. 1844 to 1 Mar. 1845
• 1
• 1
• 1
• 4
• 3
• 3
• 5
• 8
• 13
• 1 murdered; 1 died of wounds.
• 1 Mar. 1845 to 1 June 1846
• 5
• 3
• —
• 1
• 3
• 1
• 8
• 5
• 13
• 1 June 1846 to 1 June 1847
• 1
• 4
• 2
• —
• 5
• —
• 8
• 4
• 12
• 2 executed.
• 1 June 1847 to 1 June 1848
• —
• 4
• 7
• 3
• 2
• 1
• 9
• 8
• 17
• 1 June 1848 to 1 June 1849
• 2
• 2
• 3
• 1
• 3
• 2
• 8
• 5
• 13
• 1 murdered.
• 1 June 1849 to 31 Dec. 1849
• 4
• 7
• 2
• —
• 4
• 5
• 10
• 12
• 22
• 1 Jan. 1850 to 31 Dec. 1850
• 1
• —
• 1
• 1
• —
• 1
• 2
• 2
• 4
• 2 murdered by Gipps’ Land blacks.
• 1 Jan. 1851 to 31 Dec. 1851
• 1
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1
• 1
• 1
• 2
• 1 speared in drunken fray.
• 1 Jan. 1852 to 31 Dec. 1852
• 2
• —
• 3
• 1
• 5
• 1
• 10
• 2
• 12
• 5 murdered; 1, through intemperance.
• 1 Jan. 1853 to 31 Dec. 1853
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1
• 1
• 1
• 1
• 2
• 1 Jan. 1854 to 31 Dec. 1854
• 1
• —
• —
• 1
• 2
• —
• 3
• 1
• 4
• 1 murdered in drunken row; 1, intemperance.
• 1 Jan. 1855 to 31 Dec. 1855
• —
• —
• 3
• 1
• 2
• —
• 5
• 1
• 6
• 1 poisoned while drunk; 1, intemperance.
• 1 Jan. 1856 to 31 Dec. 1856
• —
• —
• 2
• 1
• 3
• 2
• 6
• 2
• 8
• 2, through intemperance; 1, supposed poisoned.
• 1 Jan. 1857 to 31 Dec. 1857
• 1
• —
• 2
• 1
• 1
• —
• 4
• 1
• 5
• 1 Murray R. black, through intemperance.
• 1 Jan. 1858 to 31 Dec. 1858
• 1
• —
• 1
• 1
• —
• —
• 2
• 1
• 3
• 1 Jan. 1859 to 31 Dec. 1859
• 1
• 1
• 1
• —
• 3
• —
• 5
• 1
• 6
• 2 suddenly intoxicated; 1, Collingwood stockade.
• 129
• 81
• 210
• RETURN showing the Number of Aboriginal Natives born in the Yarra and Western Port Districts from the 1st April 1839 to the 31st December 1859.
• ——
• Yarra Tribe.
• Western Port Tribe.
• Other Tribes journeying.
• TOTAL.
• Grand Total.
• REMARKS.
• M.
• F.
• M.
• F.
• M.
• F.
• M.
• F.
• 1 Apr. 1839 to 1 Mar. 1840
• —
• 1
• —
• 1
• —
• 1
• —
• 3
• 3
• It will be apparent from this Return, taken carefully from my journal, that there has been no comparison of births in proportion to deaths.
• Of these children born, it is lamentable that most died before the first month, or removing from the encampment for a week or two and return childless.
• I have in one line included the last nine years, as there have been no births from any other tribe in the Yarra and Western Port Districts.
• 1 Mar. 1840 to 1 Mar. 1841
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1
• —
• 1
• —
• 1
• 1 Mar. 1841 to 1 Mar. 1842
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1
• —
• 1
• —
• 1
• 1 Mar. 1842 to 1 Mar. 1843
• 1
• 1
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1
• 1
• 2
• 1 Mar. 1843 to 1 Mar. 1844
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1 Mar. 1844 to 1 Mar. 1845
• 1
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1
• —
• 1
• 1 Mar. 1845 to 1 June 1846
• 2
• 2
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 2
• 2
• 4
• 1 June 1846 to 1 June 1847
• —
• 1
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1
• 1
• 1 June 1847 to 1 June 1848
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 1 June 1848 to 1 June 1849
• 1
• 1
• —
• —
• —
• 1
• 1
• 2
• 3
• 1 June 1849 to 31 Dec. 1849
• 1
• —
• —
• —
• —
• 3
• 1
• 3
• 4
• 1 June 1850 to 31 Dec. 1859, the last 10 years
• 2
• 3
• 1
• 2
• —
• —
• 3
• 5
• 8
• 11
• 17
• 28

Names.	Diseases.
Mr. Orr	Intemperance and venereal.
"  Lane	Scorbutic.
"  Templeton	Intemperance and venereal.
"  Sherard	Intemperance and exposure.
"  Shuter	Consumption and decline.
"  Wilson	Intemperance and exposure.
"  Feskin	Bronchitis, pericarditis, psoriasis, and intemperance.
"  McLeod	Intemperance and exposure.
"  Ormond	Consumption, venereal, and intemperance.
"  Cook	Syphilis.
"  Aitkin	Liver complaints; intemperance; rheumatism.
"  Skene	Syphilis, consumption, and rheumatism.
"  Beveridge	Pulmonary consumption and venereal.
"  Allen	Influenza.
"  Craig	Influenza, consumption, and intemperance.
"  Gilles	Intemperance.
"  Strutt	Intemperance and violence.
"  J. M. Allan	Influenza; inflammation of lungs; venereal.
"  Godfrey	Drunkenness; consumption; venereal.
"  Gottreux	Bronchitis; affection of the chest.
"  Currie	Pulmonary complaints; intemperance.
"  Lydiard	Syphilis; intemperance; rheumatism.
"  Stewart	Consumption; intemperance.
"  Mitchell	Pulmonary consumption; venereal.
"  Coake	Consumption and old age.
"  Huou	Influenza; intemperance.
"  Wills (Omeo)	Intemperance; gun-shot wounds; venereal.
"  Feath­er­ston­haugh.	Pulmonary; venereal.
"  Lewes	Atrophy; influenza.

RETURN of ABORIGINAL NATIVES admitted into the Melbourne Hospital from 1st January to 8th November to date.
DATE.	NAME.	TRIBE.	DISEASE.	REMARKS.
April 17	Tommy Buckley	Gipps’ Ld.	Burnt back	Discharged, July 20
July 4	Maria	Yarra	Pneumonia	Discharged, July 24
September 14	James Shaw	Hopkins’ R.	Pleurisy; Phthisis.	Died, October 21
September 18	Sandy	Sydney	Pneumonia and Phthisis.	Died, September 25
October 30	Tommy Buckley	Gipps’ Ld.	Pneumonia and Phthisis.	Died, November 2
October 30	Tommy Nannering	Yarra	Pneumonia and Phthisis.	Died, November 2
4 deaths, and 2 discharged.

RETURN showing the Number of Aboriginal Natives who have died in the Yarra and Western Port Districts from the 1st April 1839 to the 31st December 1859, distinguishing Sexes, Tribes, &c.
——	Yarra Tribe.		Western Port Tribe.		Other Tribes journeying.		TOTAL.		Grand Total.	REMARKS.
	M.	F.	M.	F.	M.	F.	M.	F.
1 April 1839 to 1 Mar. 1840	4	1	4	3	2	1	10	5	15	1 murdered.
1 Mar. 1840 to 1 Mar. 1841	1	—	1	1	4	—	6	1	7	2 murdered; 1 shot himself; 2 shot by authorities; 1 died in jail.
1 Mar. 1841 to 1 Mar. 1842	6	3	1	2	5	2	12	7	19	2 murdered; 2 died of grief; 1, after leg amputated; 2 executed.
1 Mar. 1842 to 1 Mar. 1843	4	2	1	1	2	—	7	3	10	1 executed.
1 Mar. 1843 to 1 Mar. 1844	2	5	3	3	2	2	7	10	17	1 died by violence.
1 Mar. 1844 to 1 Mar. 1845	1	1	1	4	3	3	5	8	13	1 murdered; 1 died of wounds.
1 Mar. 1845 to 1 June 1846	5	3	—	1	3	1	8	5	13
1 June 1846 to 1 June 1847	1	4	2	—	5	—	8	4	12	2 executed.
1 June 1847 to 1 June 1848	—	4	7	3	2	1	9	8	17
1 June 1848 to 1 June 1849	2	2	3	1	3	2	8	5	13	1 murdered.
1 June 1849 to 31 Dec. 1849	4	7	2	—	4	5	10	12	22
1 Jan. 1850 to 31 Dec. 1850	1	—	1	1	—	1	2	2	4	2 murdered by Gipps’ Land blacks.
1 Jan. 1851 to 31 Dec. 1851	1	—	—	—	—	1	1	1	2	1 speared in drunken fray.
1 Jan. 1852 to 31 Dec. 1852	2	—	3	1	5	1	10	2	12	5 murdered; 1, through intemperance.
1 Jan. 1853 to 31 Dec. 1853	—	—	—	—	1	1	1	1	2
1 Jan. 1854 to 31 Dec. 1854	1	—	—	1	2	—	3	1	4	1 murdered in drunken row; 1, intemperance.
1 Jan. 1855 to 31 Dec. 1855	—	—	3	1	2	—	5	1	6	1 poisoned while drunk; 1, intemperance.
1 Jan. 1856 to 31 Dec. 1856	—	—	2	1	3	2	6	2	8	2, through intemperance; 1, supposed poisoned.
1 Jan. 1857 to 31 Dec. 1857	1	—	2	1	1	—	4	1	5	1 Murray R. black, through intemperance.
1 Jan. 1858 to 31 Dec. 1858	1	—	1	1	—	—	2	1	3
1 Jan. 1859 to 31 Dec. 1859	1	1	1	—	3	—	5	1	6	2 suddenly intoxicated; 1, Collingwood stockade.
							129	81	210

RETURN showing the Number of Aboriginal Natives born in the Yarra and Western Port Districts from the 1st April 1839 to the 31st December 1859.
——	Yarra Tribe.		Western Port Tribe.		Other Tribes journeying.		TOTAL.		Grand Total.	REMARKS.
	M.	F.	M.	F.	M.	F.	M.	F.
1 Apr. 1839 to 1 Mar. 1840	—	1	—	1	—	1	—	3	3	It will be apparent from this Return, taken carefully from my journal, that there has been no comparison of births in proportion to deaths. Of these children born, it is lamentable that most died before the first month, or removing from the encampment for a week or two and return childless. I have in one line included the last nine years, as there have been no births from any other tribe in the Yarra and Western Port Districts.
1 Mar. 1840 to 1 Mar. 1841	—	—	—	—	1	—	1	—	1
1 Mar. 1841 to 1 Mar. 1842	—	—	—	—	1	—	1	—	1
1 Mar. 1842 to 1 Mar. 1843	1	1	—	—	—	—	1	1	2
1 Mar. 1843 to 1 Mar. 1844	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
1 Mar. 1844 to 1 Mar. 1845	1	—	—	—	—	—	1	—	1
1 Mar. 1845 to 1 June 1846	2	2	—	—	—	—	2	2	4
1 June 1846 to 1 June 1847	—	1	—	—	—	—	—	1	1
1 June 1847 to 1 June 1848	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
1 June 1848 to 1 June 1849	1	1	—	—	—	1	1	2	3
1 June 1849 to 31 Dec. 1849	1	—	—	—	—	3	1	3	4
1 June 1850 to 31 Dec. 1859, the last 10 years	2	3	1	2	—	—	3	5	8
							11	17	28

WM. THOMAS,
Guardian of Aborigines.

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