The marvellous phenomenon of the evolution of a highly complicated living being from a simple undifferentiated germ in which it needs the aid of the most modern microscopical appliances to detect any visible signs of life, has not unnaturally attracted the attention of biologists from the very earliest periods. Before the establishment of the cell theory the origin of the organism from the germ was not known to be an occurrence of the same nature as the growth of the fully formed individual, and Embryological investigations were mixed up with irrelevant speculations on the origin of life[1].
The difficulties of understanding the formation of the individual from the structureless germ led anatomists at one time to accept the view “according to which the embryo preexisted, even though invisible, in the ovum, and the changes which took place during incubation consisted not in a formation of parts, but in a growth, i.e. in an expansion with concomitant changes of the already existing germ.”
Great as is the interest attaching to the simple and isolated life histories of individual organisms, this interest has been increased tenfold by the generalizations of Mr Charles Darwin.
It has long been recognized that the embryos and larvæ of the higher forms of each group pass, in the course of their development, through a series of stages in which they more or less completely resemble the lower forms of the group[2]. This remarkable phenomenon receives its explanation on Mr Darwin’s theory of descent. There are, according to this theory, two guiding, and in a certain sense antagonistic principles which have rendered possible the present order of the organic world. These are known as the laws of heredity and variation. The first of these laws asserts that the characters of an organism at all stages of its existence are reproduced in its descendants at corresponding stages. The second of these laws asserts that offspring never exactly resemble their parents. By the common action of these two principles continuous variation from a parent type becomes a possibility, since every acquired variation has a tendency to be inherited.
The remarkable law of development enunciated above, which has been extended, especially by the researches of Huxley[3] and Kowalevsky, beyond the limits of the more or less artificial groups created by naturalists, to the whole animal kingdom, is a special case of the law of heredity. This law, interpreted in accordance with the theory of descent, asserts that each organism in the course of its individual ontogeny repeats the history of its ancestral development. It may be stated in another way so as to bring out its intimate connection with the laws of inheritance and variation. Each organism reproduces the variations inherited from all its ancestors at successive stages in its individual ontogeny which correspond with those at which the variations appeared in its ancestors. This mode of stating the law shews that it is a necessary consequence of the law of inheritance. The above considerations clearly bring out the fact that Comparative Embryology has important bearings on Phylogeny, or the history of the race or group, which constitutes one of the most important branches of Zoology.
Were it indeed the case that each organism contained in its development a full record of its origin, the problems of Phylogeny would be in a fair way towards solution. As it is, however, the law above enunciated is, like all physical laws, the statement of what would occur without interfering conditions. Such a state of things is not found in nature, but development as it actually occurs is the resultant of a series of influences of which that of heredity is only one. As a consequence of this, the embryological record, as it is usually presented to us, is both imperfect and misleading. It may be compared to an ancient manuscript with many of the sheets lost, others displaced, and with spurious passages interpolated by a later hand. The embryological record is almost always abbreviated in accordance with the tendency of nature (to be explained on the principle of survival of the fittest) to attain her ends by the easiest means. The time and sequence of the development of parts is often modified, and finally, secondary structural features make their appearance to fit the embryo or larva for special conditions of existence. When the life history of a form is fully known, the most difficult part of his task is still before the scientific embryologist. Like the scholar with his manuscript, the embryologist has by a process of careful and critical examination to determine where the gaps are present, to detect the later insertions, and to place in order what has been misplaced.
The aims of Comparative Embryology as restricted in the present work are two-fold: (1) to form a basis for Phylogeny, and (2) to form a basis for Organogeny or the origin and evolution of organs. The justification for employing the results of Comparative Embryology in the solution of the problems in these two departments of science is to be found in the law above enunciated, but the results have to be employed with the qualifications already hinted at; and in both cases a knowledge of Comparative Anatomy is a necessary prelude to their application.
In accordance with the above objects Comparative Embryology may be divided into two departments.
The scientific method employed in both of these departments is that of comparison, and is in fact fundamentally the same as the method of Comparative Anatomy. By this method it becomes possible with greater or less certainty to distinguish the secondary from the primary or ancestral embryonic characters, to determine the relative value to be attached to the results of isolated observations, and generally to construct a science out of the rough mass of collected facts. It moreover enables each observer to know to what points it is important to direct his attention, and so prevents that simple accumulation of disconnected facts which is too apt to clog and hinder the advance of the science it is intended to promote.
In the department of Phylogeny the following are the more important points aimed at.