Austria / containing a Description of the Manners, Customs, Character and Costumes of the People of that Empire

by Frederic Shoberl

The kingdom of Hungary, the superficial area of which exceeds four thousand German square miles, and which contains nearly nine millions of inhabitants, is a highly interesting country both in a geographical and a moral point of view. If the observer cannot help admiring the abundance and extraordinary variety of its natural productions, neither can he behold without astonishment the diversity of the races composing its population, and the differences which prevail in their manners, customs, and religion. The variety in costume is not less striking, as we shall hereafter have occasion to show.

Civil Hungary, Croatia and Slavonia, are divided into four districts comprehending fifty-two counties.

Hungary is an hereditary but limited monarchy, the crown of which has been held since 1527 by the house of Austria. The king possesses many important rights and prerogatives, but at the same time the rights and privileges of the Hungarian nobility also are numerous and extensive. The nobility alone are designated in the language of the state by the appellation of the Hungarian people, and they are distinguished in a peculiar manner from the nobles of all other European nations by the circumstance, that the grants of their privileges have suffered least from the changes of time, and that the characteristic features of these rights, now in the nineteenth century, approach nearer than any to those of the nobles in the days of the crusades.

This constitution bears a nearer resemblance to our own in its earlier periods, as it regards the king, the magnats or grandees, and the deputies in diet assembled, than that of any of the northern nations: yet it differs widely from it in all that relates to the lower order of the people, whose interests have been completely overlooked, and who are still in nearly the same state of villanage that prevailed in most parts of Europe during the feudal ages.

The country in general is parcelled out among the magnats, some of whom possess estates of immense extent. In considering a Hungarian property, says Dr. Bright, we must figure to ourselves a landed proprietor possessing ten, twenty or forty estates, distributed in different parts of the kingdom, reckoning his acres by hundreds of thousands, and the peasants upon his estates by numbers almost as great; we must remember that all this extent of land is cultivated, not by farmers, but by his own stewards and officers, who have not only to attend to the agricultural management of the land, but to direct to a certain extent the administration of justice among the people; we must farther bear in mind, that perhaps one-third of this extensive territory consists of the deepest forests, affording a retreat and shelter not only to beasts of prey, but to many lawless and desperate characters, who often defy for a great length of time the vigilance of the police—we shall then have some faint conception of the situation and duties of a Hungarian magnat.

The same writer, in his interesting Travels in Hungary, describes the singular manner in which land is possessed and distributed in this country. No man can possess land who is not a noble of Hungary: but as all the family of a nobleman are also noble, it is calculated that one out of every twenty-one individuals in the nation is of this class. The lands descend either entire to the eldest son, or are equally divided among the sons, or in some cases among the children of both sexes: so that many of the nobles become by these divisions extremely poor, and are obliged to discharge all the duties of the meanest peasant. If any of these nobles wish to sell an estate to a stranger, however high in rank, even to a noble of the Austrian empire, application must first be made to the surrounding proprietors to learn whether they wish to purchase at the stipulated price. If they decline, a stranger may purchase it for a period of thirty years, at the end of which time any branch of the family which sold it, however distantly related, may oblige the stranger to surrender his bargain. This system is carried so far, that in many cases though the purchaser be a Hungarian noble, the family of the former possessor can reclaim it after thirty years, on payment of the original price, together with expenses incurred in the buildings and improvements made during that period. The litigation, ill-will and evils of every kind to which such laws give rise are beyond calculation.

The peasants on these estates were formerly bound to perform indefinite services, on account of supposed grants and privileges, likewise little understood. The empress Maria Theresa put the whole under certain regulations, which left less arbitrary power in the hands of the lord. She fixed the quantity of land upon each estate which was to remain irrevocably in the possession of the peasantry, giving to each peasant his portion called a session, and defining the services which he should in return perform for his lord. The only points determined, however, were, the whole quantity of land assigned to the peasants; and the proportion between the quantity of land and the quantity of labour to be required for it. The individual peasants are not fixed to the soil, but may always be dismissed when the superior finds cause; nor is it of necessity that the son should succeed the father, though usually the case. The peasant has no absolute claim to a whole session; if the lord pleases he may give but half or a third of a session, but in this case he cannot require more than one-half or one-third of the labour. The quantity of land allotted to a whole session is fixed for each county. In the county of Neutra, for instance, it varies, according to the quality of the soil, from twenty to thirty joch, each equal to nearly an English statute acre and a half; and of these sixteen or twenty must be arable and the rest meadow.

The services required of the head of the family for the whole session are one hundred and four days’ labour during the year, if he work without cattle, or fifty-two days if he bring two horses or oxen, or four if necessary, with ploughs and carts. In this work he may either employ himself, or if he prefer and can afford it, may send a servant. Besides this he must give four fowls, a dozen eggs and a pound and a half of butter; and every thirty peasants must give one calf yearly. He must also pay a florin for his house; must cut and bring home a klafter of wood; must spin in his family six pounds of wool or hemp provided by the landlord; and among four peasants the proprietor claims what is called a long journey, that is, they must transport twenty centners, each one hundred pounds weight, the distance of two days’ journey out and home; and besides all this, they must pay one-tenth of all their products to the church, and one-ninth to the lord.

Such are the services owed by the peasant, and happy would he be were he subject to no other claims. Unfortunately, however, the peasant of Hungary has scarcely any political rights, and is considered by the government much more than by the landlord, in the light of a slave. By an unlimited extension of the aristocratical privilege, the noble is free from every burden, and the whole is accumulated on the peasant. The noble pays no tribute, and goes freely through the country, subject to neither tolls nor duties; but the peasant is liable to tribute, and though there may be some nominal restrictions to the services due from him to government, it may safely be asserted, that there is no limit in point of fact to the services which he is compelled to perform. Whatever public work is to be executed, not only when a road is to be repaired, but when new roads are to be made, or bridges built, the county-meeting gives the order and the peasant dares not refuse to execute it. All soldiers passing through the country are quartered exclusively upon the peasantry. They must provide them without recompense with bread, and furnish their horses with corn, and whenever required by a particular order, they must provide the person bringing it with horses and means of conveyance. Such an order is always employed by the officers of government, and whoever can in any way plead public business as the cause of his journey, takes care to provide himself with it. In all levies of soldiers, the whole falls upon the peasant, and the choice is left to the arbitrary discretion of the lord and his servants.