Great Facts / A Popular History and Description of the Most Remarkable Inventions During the Present Century

by Frederick C. Bakewell

The French government, fully appreciating the importance of the invention, determined to purchase it from the patentee, and to throw it open to the public. An account of the invention was published in June, 1839; and in the following month an arrangement was entered into, to the effect that, in consideration of M. Daguerre making the process fully known, a pension of 6,000 francs should be granted to him for life, and a pension of 4,000 francs to M. Isidore Niepce, the nephew of the original inventor of Photography, his uncle having died before the final success was attained.

It was generally supposed at the time, that by the grant of those pensions the invention was thrown open to the whole world, as represented by the French Minister; but, nevertheless, M. Daguerre patented the process in other countries, and France alone reaped the benefit of a free use of the invention.

Whilst M. Daguerre was thus successfully working out to perfection the plan of producing beautiful naturally-impressed pictures on iodised silver surfaces, Mr. Fox Talbot was at the same time nearly attaining the same results. The following is the account given by himself of his researches:[3]—"Having in the year 1834 discovered the principles of Photography on paper, I some time afterwards made some experiments on metal plates; and in 1838 I discovered a method of rendering a silver plate sensitive to light, by exposing it to iodine vapours. I was at that time, therefore, treading in the footsteps of M. Daguerre, without knowing that he, or indeed any other person, was pursuing, or had commenced or thought of, the art which we now call Photography. But as I was not aware of the power of mercurial vapour to bring out the latent impressions, I found my plates of iodised silver deficient in sensibility, and therefore continued to use in preference my photogenic drawing paper. This was in 1838. Some time after—in August, 1839—M. Daguerre published an account of his perfected process, which reached us during the meeting of the British Association; and I took the opportunity to lay before the Section the facts which I had myself ascertained in Metallic Photography."

Whilst to M. Daguerre must be awarded the honour of having first brought to perfection the method of rendering permanent the images of the camera on metal plates, Mr. Fox Talbot may claim to be the first who perfected similar images on paper, which the comparative roughness of the surface alone prevented from being as delicately beautiful as the pictures of the Daguerreotype. He commenced his experiments in Photography in 1834; and on the 31st of January, 1839, he read a paper before the Royal Society, entitled, "Some Account of the Art of Photogenic Drawing; or, a process by which natural objects may be made to delineate themselves without the aid of the artist's pencil."

Mr. Talbot had not then succeeded in obtaining the impressions of images focused in the camera; what he had succeeded in doing was to fix upon paper the shadows of objects placed upon it, and exposed to the light of the sun. The paper was first dipped into a solution of common salt, and then wiped dry, to diffuse the salt uniformly through the substance of the paper. A solution of nitrate of silver was then spread over one surface with a soft brush, and dried carefully before a fire in a darkened room. The strength of the solution was regulated by first obtaining a saturated solution of the nitrate of silver, and afterwards diluting it with six or eight times its volume of water. The objects to be copied, such as leaves, lace, or other flat surfaces, were pressed against the prepared paper by a glass fixed in a frame, and exposure to light quickly darkened all the parts of the paper, excepting those shaded by the objects. The image thus impressed was what is termed a "negative," the dark parts which excluded the light being left white on the paper, and the parts through which the light passed being darkened. To produce a picture corresponding with the natural lights and shades, the process was repeated, substituting the picture first obtained, on thin transparent paper, for the original object, by which means the lights and shadows were reversed.

The chloride of silver, formed on the surface of the sensitive paper by the combination of the common salt and nitrate of silver, being insoluble in water, great difficulty was experienced in washing it away, so as to prevent the whole surface from afterwards darkening on exposure to light. The application of hyposulphite of soda, for the purpose of making the pictures durable, was suggested by Sir John Herschel, and it answers remarkably well, as it dissolves the chloride of silver. A solution of ammonia is nearly equally efficacious in removing the chloride.

The Calotype process, by which the images of the camera can be fixed upon paper, was invented by Mr. Talbot, in 1840. It is thus described:—Dissolve 100 grains of crystallized nitrate of silver in 6 ounces of distilled water. Procure some fine writing paper, and wash one side of it with the solution, laid on with a soft brush; then dry the paper cautiously, by holding it at a distance from the fire. When dry, dip the paper into a solution of iodide of potassium, containing 500 grains dissolved in 1 pint of water, and let it remain in the solution two or three minutes. Then dip it into a vessel of water; remove the water on the surface by blotting paper, and dry it by a fire, in the dark or by candle-light. The paper thus prepared is called "iodised paper;" it is not very sensitive to light, and may be kept for some time without spoiling. Next dissolve 100 grains of crystallized nitrate of silver in 2 ounces of distilled water; add to the solution one-sixth of its volume of strong acetic acid, and call that mixture A. Then make a strong solution of crystallized gallic acid in cold water, and let that solution be called B. Mix equal volumes of A and B together in small quantities at a time. That mixture Mr. Talbot calls gallo-nitrate of silver, and with it wash over the surface of the iodised paper. Allow the paper to remain half a minute, and then dip it into water, and again dry it lightly with blotting paper. The paper thus prepared is very sensitive, and will receive an impression in the camera in the shortest possible time. The impression is at first invisible, but it may be brought out by laying the paper aside in the dark, or by washing it once more in the gallo-nitrate of silver, and holding it at a short distance from the fire. To fix the picture, the paper is first washed in water and lightly dried, and then soaked in a solution of hyposulphite of soda for a few minutes, by which means the iodised silver is removed, and after being again washed in water and dried, the process is completed. The picture thus produced is a negative one, and requires to be transferred in the manner before stated. The original Calotype may, by that means, serve to produce a great number of pictures.

Mr. Talbot's patent was sealed on the 8th of February, 1841. In his specification, he claimed the use of gallic acid, and he succeeded in enforcing his claim in a Court of Law, though it appeared that on the 10th of April, 1839, photographs of objects taken in the solar microscope in five minutes, by the Rev. J. B. Reade, were shown at the London institution, which were described to have been produced by an infusion of galls, and fixed with hyposulphite of soda. It must be mentioned, however, to Mr. Talbot's honour, that on a representation to him by the President of the Royal Society that the art of Photography was impeded in its progress in this country by patent monopolies, he generously made a present to the public of all his inventions and discoveries, reserving to himself only the privilege of taking portraits.

The transfer from one paper to another of the picture obtained in the camera, and the comparative roughness of the surface of the paper itself, prevent Calotypes from exhibiting that sharpness and delicacy of definition which are so admirable in a Daguerreotype. Several attempts were therefore made to obtain a more smooth surface for the reception of the image; but without much success, until glass was adopted for the purpose. To make that material available, it is necessary to coat it with some substance that will absorb the sensitive solution. In the first instance, the white of eggs was employed with considerable success. Albumen has, however, been supplanted by collodion—a solution of gun-cotton in ether—which is found to be peculiarly suitable for the reception of the sensitive preparation of silver.

In conducting the collodion process, the collodion is first iodised by adding to it iodide of potassium and iodide of silver, dissolved in alcohol. The iodised collodion is then poured over a plate of glass that has been carefully cleaned, and is moved about horizontally until a perfectly uniform film is spread over the surface, to which it adheres firmly. The plate is afterwards dipped into a solution of nitrate of silver, which renders it so highly sensitive to impressions of light, that it will receive an image in less than a second. The image is latent, until it is developed by pouring over the plate a mixture of pyro-gallic acid in distilled water, acetic acid, and nitrate of silver. The impression is fixed with hyposulphite of soda.