[1] The approximate number of prisoners was as follows, viz:—
| Military Officers (including Gen. Leopoldo Garcia Peña) | 200 |
| Military Regular troops | 8,000 |
| Civil Servants and private Civilians and families | 560 |
| Ecclesiastics and Nuns (including Bishop Hévia Campomanes, of the diocese of Nueva Segovia | 400 |
| Total in long captivity, about | 9,160 |
| Taken prisoners and released voluntarily, or through personal influences, or escaped from the camps--about | 1,840 |
| Approximate Grand Total | 11,000 |
[2] Baron Honoré Fréderic Adhemar Bourgeois du Marais, a Frenchman of noble birth and noble sentiments, was the son of Viscount Bourgeois du Marais. Born at Bourg Port, in the Algerian province of Constantina, in 1882 he left Europe with a party of gentlemen colonists in the s.s. Nouvelle Bretagne, intending to settle in Port Breton, in Australasia. The vessel having put into Manila, she was detained for debt, but escaped from port in the teeth of a hurricane. A Spanish gunboat went in pursuit and brought her back, and Baron Du Marais decided to remain in the Philippines. For several years he was associated with his countryman M. Daillard in the development of the Jalajala Estate (vide p. [360]). On M. Daillardʼs decease he became the representative of the “Compañia Tabacalera” at their vast estate of Santa Lucia (Tárlac), which prospered under his able management. His wonderful tact in the handling of natives secured their attachment to him. After fifteen yearsʼ absence from home he went to Europe to recruit his health, returning to the Islands in November, 1898. After the ill-fated mission of humanity referred to above, his body lay hidden in the jungle for nearly two years, until November, 1900, when it was discovered and brought to Manila for interment at the Paco cemetery. The funeral, which took place on November 25, was one of the most imposing ceremonies of the kind ever witnessed in Manila. Monsignor Chapelle officiated at the Requiem mass celebrated at the Cathedral in the presence of the chief American authorities, the French and Spanish Consuls-General and representatives of the foreign residents, Chambers of Commerce, the Army and Navy, the Clubs, the Press, and every important collectivity. The cortége was, moreover, escorted by a large body of troops to the last resting-place of this gallant hero.
[3] By Royal Decree of June, 1897, a Philippine Loan was authorized, secured on Custom-house revenue and general guarantee of Spain. The Loan was for 200 millions of pesetas in hypothecary bonds of the Philippine Treasury, bearing 6 per cent, interest, redeemable at par in 40 years.
| Series A. | 250,000 Bonds of 500 pts. | = 125 millions |
| Series B. | 750,000 Bonds of 100 pts. | = 75 millions |
First issue of 100 millions A at 92 per cent. was made on July 15, 1897.
End of the War of Independence and After
In the month of May, 1901, the prisons were overflowing with captured insurgents, and the military authorities found an ostensible reason for liberating a number of them. A General Order was issued that to “signalize the recent surrender of General Manuel Tinio[1] and other prominent leaders,” one thousand prisoners of war would be released on taking the oath of allegiance. The flame of organized insurrection was almost extinguished, but there still remained some dangerous embers. Bands of armed natives wandered through the provinces under the name of insurgents, and on July 31, 1901, one of Aguinaldoʼs subordinate generals, named Miguel Malvar, a native of Santo Tomás (Batangas) issued a manifesto from the “Slopes of the Maquiling” (Laguna Province), announcing that he had assumed the position of Supreme Chief. Before the war he had little to lose, but fishing in troubled waters and gulling the people with anting-anting and the “signs in the clouds” proved to be a profitable occupation to many. An expedition was sent against him, and he was utterly routed in an engagement which took place near his native town. After Miguel Malvar surrendered (April 16, 1902) and Vicente Lucban was captured in Sámar (April 27, 1902), the war (officially termed “insurrection”) actually terminated, and was formally declared ended on the publication of President Rooseveltʼs Peace Proclamation and Amnesty grant, dated July 4, 1902. A sedition law was passed under which every disturber of the public peace would be thenceforth arraigned, and all acts of violence, pillage, etc., would come under the common laws affecting those crimes. In short, insurgency ceased to be a valid plea; if it existed in fact, officially it had become a dead letter. Those who still lingered in the penumbra between belligerence and brigandage were thenceforth treated as common outlaws whose acts bore no political significance whatever. The notorious “General” San Miguel, for a long time the terror of Rizal Province, was given no quarter, but shot on the field at Corral-na-bató in March, 1903. One of the famous bandits, claiming to be an insurgent, was Faustino Guillermo, who made laws, levied tribute, issued army commissions, divided the country up into military departments, and defied the Government until his stratagem to induce the constabulary to desert brought about his own capture in the Bosoboso Mountain (Mórong) in June, 1903. A mass of papers seized revealed his pretension to be a patriotic saviour of his people, but it is difficult indeed to follow the reasoning of a man who starts on that line by sacking his own countrymenʼs villages. Another interesting individual was Artemio Ricarte, formerly a primary schoolmaster. In 1899 he led a column under Aguinaldo, and was subsequently his general specially commissioned to raise revolt inside the capital; but the attempt failed, and many arrests followed. During the war he was captured by the Americans, to whom he refused to take the oath of allegiance and was deported to Guam. In Washington it was decided to release the political prisoners on that island, and Ricarte and Mabini were brought back to Manila. As Ricarte still refused to take the oath, he was banished, and went to Hong-Kong in February, 1903. In the following December he returned to Manila disguised as a seaman, and stole ashore in the crowd of stevedore labourers. Assuming the ludicrous title of the “Viper,” he established what he called the “triumvirate” government in the provinces, and declared war on the Americans. His operations in this direction were mostly limited to sending crackbrained letters to the Civil Governor in Manila from his “camp in the sky,” but his perturbation of the rural districts had to be suppressed. At length, after a long search, he was taken prisoner at the cockpit in Marivéles in May, 1904. He and his confederates were brought to trial on the two counts of carrying arms without licence and sedition, the revelations of the “triumvirate,” which were comical in the extreme, affording much amusement to the reading public. The judgement of the court on Ricarte was six yearsʼ imprisonment and a fine of $6,000.
Apolinario Mabini, Ricarteʼs companion in exile, was one of the most conspicuous figures in the War of Independence. Of poor parentage, he was born at Tanaúan (Batangas) in May, 1864, and having finished his studies in Manila he took up the law as a profession, living in obscurity until the Rebellion, during which he became the recognized leader of the Irreconcilables and Prime Minister in the Malolos Government. In the political sphere he was the soul of the insurgent movement, the ruling power behind the presidency of Aguinaldo. It was he who drafted the Constitution of the Philippine Republic, dated January 21, 1899 (vide p. [486]). Taken prisoner by the Americans in December, 1899, he was imprisoned on his refusal to subscribe to the oath of allegiance. On August 1, 1900, he was granted leave to appear before the Philippine Commission, presided over by Mr. W. H. Taft. He desired to show that, according to his lights, he was not stubbornly holding out against reason. As Mabini was not permitted to discuss abstract matters, and Mr. Taft reiterated the intention to establish American sovereignty in the Islands, their views were at variance, and Mabini was deported to Guam, but allowed the privilege of taking his son there as his companion in exile. On his return to Manila in February, 1903, he reluctantly took the required oath and was permitted to remain in the capital. Suffering from paralysis for years previous, his mental energy, as a chronic invalid, was amazing. Three months after his return to the metropolis he was seized with cholera, to which he succumbed on May 13, 1903, at the early age of thirty-nine, to the great regret of his countrymen and of his many European admirers.
The Irreconcilables, even at the present day, persist in qualifying as legitimate warfare that condition of provincial perturbation which the Americans and the Federal Party hold to be outlawry and brigandage. Hence the most desperate leaders and their bands of cut-throats are, in the Irreconcilablesʼ phraseology, merely insurgents still protesting against American dominion. As late as February, 1902, an attempt was made to revive the war in Leyte Island. At that date a certain Florentino Peñaranda, styling himself the Insurrectionary Political-Military Chief, issued a proclamation in his island addressed “in particular to those who are serving under the Americans.” This document, the preamble of which is indited in lofty language, carrying the reader mentally all round North and South America, Abyssinia and Europe, terminates with a concession of pardon to all who repent their delinquency in serving the Americans, and an invitation to Filipinos and foreigners to join his standard. It had little immediate effect, but it may have given an impulse to the brigandage which was subsequently carried on so ferociously under a notorious, wary ruffian named Tumayo. Thousands, too long accustomed to a lawless, emotional existence to settle down to prosaic civil life, went to swell the ranks of brigands, but it would exceed the limits of this work to refer to the over 15,000 expeditions made to suppress them. Brigandage (vide p. [235]) has been rife in the Islands for a century and a half, and will probably continue to exist until a network of railways in each large island makes it almost impossible. But brigandage in Spanish times was very mild compared with what it is now. Such a thing as a common highwayman was almost unknown. The brigands of that period—the Tulisánes of the north and the Pulajánes of the south—went in parties who took days to concoct a plan for attacking a country residence, or a homestead, for robbery and murder. The assault was almost invariably made at night, and the marauders lived in the mountains, avoiding the highroads and the well-known tracks. The traveller might then go about the Islands for years without ever seeing a brigand; now that they have increased so enormously since the war, there is not business enough for them in the old way, and they infest the highways and villages. One effect of the revolution has been to diminish greatly the awe with which the native regarded the European before they had crossed swords in regular warfare. Again, since 1898, the fact that here and there a white man made common cause with outlaws has had a detrimental effect on the white manʼs prestige, and the new caste of bandits which has come into existence is far more audacious than its predecessor. Formerly the outlaws had only bowie-knives and a few fowling-pieces; now they have an ample supply of rifles. Hence, since the American advent, the single traveller and his servant journey at great risk in the so-called civilized provinces, especially if the traveller has Anglo-Saxon features. Parties of three or four, well armed, are fairly safe. Fierce fights with outlaws are of common occurrence; a full record of brigand depredations would fill a volume, and one can only here refer to a few remarkable cases.