A severe epidemic of small-pox raged in Paris, as stated above, even before the siege took place. In the first part of the siege, moreover, the disease raged with even greater fury in the city, since most of the young newly-enlisted mobile guards had never been vaccinated. The maximum of deaths caused by it were reported between November 6 and November 27. We have already described the course of the small-pox epidemic in Paris.[[345]] It was influenced neither by hunger nor by cold, but developed chiefly for the reason that it was impossible to congregate and isolate the large number of unvaccinated and susceptible persons.
Typhoid fever, dysentery, and diarrhoea, because of the unfavourable conditions brought about by the siege, became very widespread and virulent. Whereas in the year 1869 there were 630 deaths caused by typhoid fever, during the siege of 1870 no less than 3,475 persons succumbed to that disease. Dupinet[[346]] thinks that the above number is too small, because the disease was often not recognized, and pneumonia, a common complication, was entered as the cause of death. Inasmuch as typhoid fever was endemic in Paris, and as the native inhabitants had acquired immunity by recovery from an attack in the early part of their lives, those who were most severely afflicted by the disease were chiefly the soldiers in the army and the refugees from the surrounding country. The largest number of deaths was reported in the twentieth week of the siege, i.e. between January 14 and 20.[[347]] No less than 375 persons succumbed to typhoid fever in the course of that week, whereas in the corresponding week of the previous year only sixteen deaths had been reported. The largest number of deaths caused by dysentery and diarrhoea in a single week was reported somewhat later; the limited prevalence of these diseases during the siege is indicated by the fact that in the half-year 1869–70 the number of deaths caused by them was never more than twenty per week. From statistics compiled by Sueur we have arranged the following table (p. 323), which also includes the deaths caused by bronchitis and pneumonia, but not the victims buried on the battle-fields, of whom there were some 3,000.
The table indicates the gradual diminution of the food-supply. In December the quality of the bread grew worse and worse; white bread could no longer be baked, and in its place an almost inedible form of brown bread was made out of bran, wheat, rye, rice, barley, and oats. Particularly noticeable was the lack of good fats, making it necessary to prepare foods with a bad-tasting tallow that was sold under the name of ‘Beurre de Paris’. Since the cattle had to be slaughtered (those that were not killed died of various diseases), there was very soon a great scarcity of milk, making it very difficult to feed infants.[[348]]
Several persons have maintained that the extreme cold exerted considerable influence upon the death-rate; and a glance at the two columns in the table indicating the number of deaths caused by pneumonia and bronchitis would seem to justify this contention. How great the difference was, as compared with normal years, will be obvious when we call attention to the fact that, whereas in the twenty-second week of the siege (January 28–February 3) 627 persons succumbed to bronchitis, in the preceding year only seventy-six deaths were caused by that disease between January 30 and February 5, and that, whereas from 465 to 468 persons succumbed to pneumonia between January 21 and February 18, 1871, the number of deaths caused by that disease in the corresponding period of the previous year varied from 90 to 119 per week.
According to the unanimous verdict of the Paris physicians, typhus fever did not make its appearance during the siege.
| Mortality during the Siege of Paris | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. of the week. | First and last day of the week. | Important ordinances and events. | Average no. deaths in the years 1867–9. | Total no. deaths during the siege. | No. of deaths during the siege caused by | |||||
| Small-pox. | Typhoid Fever. | Dysentery. | Diarrhoea. | Pneumonia. | Bronchitis. | |||||
| 1 | Sept. 4–10 | 889 | 981 | 116 | 39 | 8 | 25 | 54 | 45 | |
| 2 | Sept. 11–17 | 852 | 1263 | 168 | 45 | 10 | 65 | 66 | 55 | |
| 3 | Sept. 18–24 | Sept. 19, investment completed | 821 | 1272 | 158 | 45 | 9 | 43 | 62 | 61 |
| 4 | Sept. 25–Oct. 1 | 766 | 1344 | 210 | 56 | 23 | 46 | 46 | 36 | |
| 5 | Oct. 2–8 | Oct. 8, meat ration fixed at 100 gr. for adults, 50 gr. for children | 754 | 1483 | 212 | 54 | 18 | 69 | 50 | 56 |
| 6 | Oct. 9–15 | 737 | 1610 | 311 | 54 | 26 | 72 | 64 | 55 | |
| 7 | Oct. 16–22 | 761 | 1746 | 360 | 55 | 23 | 76 | 66 | 70 | |
| 8 | Oct. 23–9 | 754 | 1878 | 378 | 62 | 49 | 99 | 71 | 77 | |
| 9 | Oct. 30–Nov. 5 | Oct. 30, requisition of fuel | 767 | 1762 | 380 | 61 | 32 | 87 | 69 | 72 |
| 10 | Nov. 6–12 | 781 | 1885 | 419 | 62 | 39 | 91 | 79 | 82 | |
| 11 | Nov. 13–19 | 780 | 2064 | 431 | 94 | 25 | 91 | 73 | 92 | |
| 12 | Nov. 20–26 | Nov. 21, requisition of potatoes | 793 | 1927 | 386 | 103 | 25 | 92 | 81 | 89 |
| 13 | Nov. 27–Dec. 3 | 833 | 2023 | 412 | 140 | 25 | 76 | 92 | 99 | |
| 14 | Dec. 4–10 | 833 | 2455 | 398 | 137 | 33 | 83 | 108 | 107 | |
| 15 | Dec. 11–17 | Dec. 15, horse-meat ration fixed at 50 gr. per head | 884 | 2728 | 391 | 173 | 38 | 103 | 131 | 190 |
| 16 | Dec. 18–24 | Dec. 19, reduction of bread ration to 300 gr. for adults, 150 gr. for children | 854 | 2728 | 388 | 221 | 30 | 73 | 147 | 172 |
| 17 | Dec. 25–31 | 856 | 3280 | 454 | 250 | 51 | 98 | 201 | 258 | |
| 18 | Jan. 1–6 | Jan. 4, beginning of bombardment | 838 | 3680 | 329 | 251 | 52 | 151 | 262 | 343 |
| 19 | Jan. 7–13 | 902 | 3982 | 339 | 301 | 46 | 143 | 390 | 457 | |
| 20 | Jan. 14–20 | 903 | 4465 | 380 | 375 | 42 | 137 | 426 | 598 | |
| 21 | Jan. 21–7 | 936 | 4376 | 327 | 313 | 48 | 134 | 478 | 548 | |
| 22 | Jan. 28–Feb. 3 | 951 | 4671 | 258 | 324 | 63 | 150 | 465 | 627 | |
| 23 | Feb. 4–10 | Feb. 4, armistice. First supplies brought in | 955 | 4451 | 225 | 260 | 57 | 144 | 468 | 593 |
| 24 | Feb. 11–17 | 974 | 4103 | 174 | 298 | 59 | 158 | 471 | 539 | |
| 25 | Feb. 18–24 | 995 | 3941 | 134 | 301 | 52 | 181 | 410 | 557 | |
| 26 | Feb. 25–Mar. 3 | 984 | 3500 | 147 | 260 | 50 | 190 | 338 | 424 | |
| 27 | Mar. 4–10 | 1020 | 2993 | 85 | 258 | 60 | 142 | 267 | 379 | |
| 28 | Mar. 11–17 | 975 | 2576 | 98 | 229 | 49 | 104 | 188 | 301 | |
| 24148 | 75167 | 8068 | 4821 | 1042 | 2923 | 5623 | 6982 | |||
Scurvy broke out, but did not become at all widespread; sporadic cases of the disease were observed among the civil inhabitants, while in the prisons and hospitals it was somewhat more prevalent. Delpech[[349]] attributes the appearance of the disease to the lack of fresh vegetables, which were very expensive and could not be given out in the public establishments. Among the soldiers the disease broke out only in Fort Bicêtre, the garrison in which consisted of 800 marines, of whom some seventy or seventy-five contracted it. None of them were given any salted meat, and Grenet[[350]] contends that the outbreak was caused by the lack of light and air in the small casemates, and by arduous service, especially in the night. But here, too, the real cause was probably to be found in the lack of fresh vegetables, which Grenet does not mention.
The death-rate in Paris during the siege was about three times as high as normal. Sueur has estimated that in the years 1867–9 the mortality in the twenty-eight weeks corresponding with those in the above table was 13·1 per 1,000 inhabitants, whereas in the twenty-eight weeks of the siege the mortality was 38·6 per 1,000.
6. The Siege of Port Arthur (1904)
Port Arthur was besieged by the Japanese from July 30, 1904, to January 2, 1905—a period of 156 days. Whereas, as stated in the last chapter, the condition of health in the Russian army was good, the sanitary conditions in Port Arthur during the siege were very bad, since the supply of provisions that had been laid in proved to be insufficient.[[351]] The offer made on August 16 by General Nogi and Admiral Togo, granting all the women, children (under 16 years), ecclesiastics, members of the diplomatic corps and military and naval attachés of foreign powers permission to leave the stronghold, was refused by General Stössel. As early as August 5 horse-meat began to be distributed;[[352]] from September 17 on the troops were supplied four times a week with horse-meat, since there was no other fresh or canned meat available. At this time almost everything in the city was consumed, though the Chinese secretly brought rice, eggs, and other things, on boats from Chufoo. After September 28 the soldiers were given meat only twice a week (one-half of a pound of horse-meat or one-third of a can of preserved meat). Regarding conditions up to October 20 we are informed by the report of the Russian General Medical Staff:[[353]] ‘The supply of food ran lower and lower; beef gave out very early, only a small quantity of canned meat was left, and even the portions of horse-meat had to be dealt out very sparingly, as we had very important use for horses in transporting ammunition, water, food, &c., to the various positions. In the city it became more and more difficult every day to procure food; meat, if by any chance a small quantity was marketed, was sold in the stores for one and one-half roubles per pound. A chicken cost twelve roubles, a goose twenty roubles, an egg one rouble, a pound of onions one rouble, a pound of horse-meat one half-rouble.’