The Polar World / A popular description of man and nature in the Arctic and Antarctic regions of the globe

by G. Hartwig

[20] “Athenæum,” Dec. 3, 1853.

[21] For an account of the similar phenomena of the “Buffadero,” on the Mexican coast, and of the “Souffleur,” Mauritius, see “The Sea and its Living Wonders,” 3d ed. p. 52.

[22] “Excursions in Newfoundland.”

[23] “The Sea and its Living Wonders,” p. 403.

[24] Voyage of the Swedish ship “Eugénie.”

[25] Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux. By Charles Francis Hall. New York, 1866.

INDEX.

• A.
• Adélie, Terre, discovery of, [402].
• Agouti, the, of Patagonia, [419].
• Agriculture, state of, in Iceland, [79].
• Aigun, treaty of, [196].
• Air, remarkable moisture of the, in Taimurland, [225].
• ——, its perpetual motion in the Arctic zones, [225].
• Akurig, eider-ducks of, [81].
• Alaska, discovery of, [202].
• ——, climate of the, [269].
• ——, mountains and forests of, [269].
• ——, purchase of, by the Americans, [277].
• ——, telegraph through, [278].
• ——, travelling in, [278–289].
• ——, natives of, [278–289].
• ——, climate of, [284].
• ——, food in, [287].
• Albasin, the Russian fort of, built, [195].
• ——, destroyed by the Chinese, but rebuilt, [196].
• Albatross, wandering, of the Antarctic seas, [395].
• Alcyonians on the coasts of Greenland, [59].
• Aleutian Islands, causes which led to the discovery of the, [201].
• ——, extent of the, [270].
• Aleuts, their wretched condition under their masters, [273].
• ——, their skill and intrepidity in hunting, [273–276].
• Alexander, Cape, discovery of, [365].
• —— Island, discovery of, [401].
• Algerine pirates, ravages of, in Iceland, [95];
• and in the Westman Islands, [119].
• Almannagja, description of the, [73].
• Altai Mountains, crossed by the Cossacks, [195].
• Alten, copper mines of, [128].
• Altenfjord, vegetation of the borders of the, [128].
• America, North, treeless zone of, [18–22].
• ——, character of the Coniferæ of, [23], [24].
• ——, range of the caribou, or reindeer, of, [36–39].
• ——, the musk-ox of, [41].
• ——, the white dolphin in the rivers of, [61].
• ——, the black dolphin of, [61].
• ——, walruses of the shores of, [64].
• ——, history of the fur-trade of, [307] et seq.
• ——, first discoverers and settlers of, [335].
• America, North, destruction of the Greenland colonies, [335].
• ——, subsequent discoveries, [335] et seq.
• ——, attempts to discover the north-western passage to India, [342] et seq.
• America, Russian, its transfer to the United States, [272], note.
• Amoor, river, discovery of the, by the Russians, who relinquish it to the Chinese, [195], [196].
• ——, the country annexed by Russia, [196].
• Anakerdluk, in North Greenland, buried forest of, [29].
• Angekoks, or priests of the Esquimaux, [301].
• Animals, comparatively small number of, in the Arctic regions, [25].
• ——, the forests the head-quarters of many, [41].
• —— of the Arctic Seas, [59].
• —— of the coasts of Spitzbergen, [134].
• ——, fur-bearing, of Siberia, [209].
• ——, the, of Taimurland, [227].
• —— of Nishne-Kolymsk, [235].
• —— of Newfoundland, [378].
• ——, no land, in the Antarctic region, [394].
• —— of Patagonia, [418].
• Aniuj, vegetation of the valley of the, [235].
• ——, chief resource of the people of the, [237].
• Anjou, Lieut., his Arctic explorations, [233].
• Archangel, foundation of, [192].
• ——, New, site of the town of, [272].
• ——, fur-trade of, [273].
• ——, medium of exchange at, [276].
• Archers, the Ostiaks as, [187].
• Arctic regions, rivers of the, [17].
• ——, limits of the, [18].
• ——, the forests of the, [18–23].
• ——, their treeless wastes, or Tundra, [18].
• ——, in summer and winter, [19].
• ——, their extent and boundaries, [21].
• ——, animal life in the, [25].
• ——, influence of the sea and winds on the severity of the winter of the, [27].
• ——, the lowest temperatures felt by man, [27], [28].
• ——, how man becomes accustomed to the rigors of the winter of the, [28].
• ——, proofs of a former milder climate in the northern regions of the globe, [29].
• ——, beauties of Nature in the, [31–33].
• ——, land quadrupeds and birds of the, [34].
• ——, the seas of the, [49].
• —— compared with the Antarctic regions, [391].
• Arctic voyages of discovery, history of, [335] et seq.
• Are Thorgilson, his Icelandic works, [94].
• Argali (Ovis argali) of Siberia, [41].
• Arrows of the Ostiaks, [187], [188].
• Ascidians on the coasts of Greenland, [59].
• Ash, the, in the Arctic regions, [24].
• Asia, treeless zone of, [18–22].
• Athabascan Indians, hunting-grounds of the, [327].
• Atlassoff, the Cossack, his treatment of the natives of Kamchatka, [198].
• Atmosphere, transparency of the, in the Polar regions, [54], [55].
• ——, phenomena of, reflection and refraction, and their probable causes, [55].
• Auk, the giant, its rarity at present in Iceland. [85].
• Aurora borealis, [33].
• ——, splendor of the, in the Arctic regions, [33].
• Aurora borealis, terror of the Lapps at the, [157].
• ——, at Nulato, [281].
• Austin, Captain, his search for Franklin, [357].
• Avalanches of ice in Spitzbergen, [135].
• Awaklok and Myouk, their imprisonment on an iceberg, [298].
• Awatscha Bay, sea-birds of, [255].
• ——, its magnificence and extent, [256].
• B.
• Baaty Khan, his subjection of Russia, [191].
• Bachelor river, the, [412].
• Back (Mr., afterwards Sir George), his Arctic voyages, [346], [347], [349].
• ——, his search for Captain Ross, [354].
• ——, his discovery of Great Fish River, [355].
• ——, voyage in 1835, [355].
• Back’s river, discovery of, [355].
• Badarany, desert of swamps, the, [234].
• Baer, Herr von, his scientific journey to Nova Zembla, [151].
• Baffin, his voyages of discovery, [343].
• Baffin’s Bay, probable influence of the northerly winds on the depression of the temperature of, [27].
• Baffin’s Bay, walruses of the coasts of, [64].
• ——, discovery of, [343].
• Balleny, his discoveries in the Antarctic ocean, [401].
• —— Islands, discovery of, [401].
• Banks’s Land, proofs of a former milder temperature in, [29].
• Bards, or Scalds, of Iceland, [94].
• Barentz, William, visit of, to Spitzbergen, [138].
• ——, his voyages of discovery, [339].
• ——, his winter in Nova Zembla, [340].
• ——, his death, [342].
• Barley, cultivation of, in Norway, [124].
• Barren grounds, barrens, or tundri, Arctic belt of the, [18].
• ——, causes of their barrenness, [18].
• ——, their appearance in winter and in summer, [19].
• ——, indistinct and irregular boundaries of the, [21].
• ——, those of Newfoundland, [377].
• Barrow Point, traffic of, [302].
• Barter Reef, traffic of, [302].
• Bear, black, muskwa (Ursus americanus), value of the fur of the, [315].
• ——, description of him, [315], [318].
• ——, brown, of North America, [315].
• ——, value of the skins of the young brown bear, [211].
• ——, grizzly, of the Rocky Mountains (Ursus ferox), [315].
• ——, his skin, [315].
• ——, the polar, his mode of hunting, [65], [446], [448].
• ——, his favorite food and mode of seizing it, [65], [447], [450], [451].
• ——, anecdote of one, [65].
• ——, instances of his sagacity, [65].
• ——, parental care of the she-bear, [65].
• ——, her winter nursery, [65], [66].
• ——, her internal store of food for her hibernation, [66].
• ——, immense strength of claws and teeth, [66], [67].
• ——, his unwelcome visits to Iceland, [81].
• ——, of Spitzbergen, [137].
• ——, of Nova Zembla, [149].
• ——, Lapp mode of hunting the, [164–166].
• ——, Esquimaux methods of hunting the, [163].
• Bear of Newfoundland, [378].
• ——, abundance of, in Kamchatka, [258].
• ——, sea-, value of the skins of the, in China, [374].
• ——, chase of the, in the Pribilow Islands, [274].
• —— families and battles, [274], [275].
• ——, the Austral sea-, [399].
• ——, hunted by dogs, [453].
• Bear Island, or Cherie Island, account of, [143].
• ——, climate of, [144].
• ——, walruses of, [144].
• ——, boat-voyages of Norwegian sailors from, [145].
• ——, discovery of, [340].
• ——, surveyed by the Russians, [200].
• Beaver (Castor fiber), its skin the standard of exchange with the Canadian Indians, [313].
• ——, former enormous trade in the fur of the, [317].
• —— of Newfoundland, [378].
• Beaver Indians, their hunting-grounds, [327].
• Bee, sand (Andrena), of Nova Zembla, [154].
• Beech, Antarctic (Fagus betuloides), [410].
• Beechey, Captain, his voyage to Bering’s Straits, [350].
• Beerenberg mountain, [146].
• Bering, Titus, never passed through the straits bearing his name, [197].
• ——, his second voyage, [201].
• ——, his second voyage of discovery, [248], [249].
• ——, his bad conduct, [250].
• ——, his death, [252].
• Bering Island, Bering and Steller on, [251].
• —— Sea, description of the, [268].
• ——, barren lands at, [22].
• ——, seals and walruses of, [63], [64].
• ——, its climate, [269].
• ——, character of the shores of the, [270].
• ——, animals of the, [271].
• Bering’s Straits, view of the Old and New worlds in the, [271].
• ——, Captain Beechey’s voyage to, [350].
• Belcher, Sir Edward, his search for Franklin, [359].
• Bellinghausen, his discovery of the islands Paul the First and Alexander, [401].
• Bellot, Lieut., his gallant search for Franklin, [359].
• ——, his death and monument, [362].
• Beluga, or white dolphin (Delphinus leucas), description of the, [61].
• ——, domain of the, [61].
• Beluga Bay, visit of Von Baer’s party to, [151].
• Bennet, Stephen, his visit to Bear Island, [143], [144].
• Berry-gathering in Nishne-Kolymsk, [238].
• Bilberries of the Arctic regions, [24].
• Billings, voyage of, on the coast of Siberia, [201].
• Birch, paper, value of the, in North America, [304].
• Birch-trees in the Arctic regions, [24].
• Birds, flights of wild, in summer months, in the Tundra, [19].
• ——, their migrations to and from high latitudes, [43], [44], [67].
• ——, the polar singing-bird, the snow-bunting, [43].
• ——, raptorial, of the Arctic regions, [43].
• ——, enormous numbers of, along the Arctic shores, [67].
• ——, Icelandic, [81].
• —— of the coast of Norway, [124].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [133], [134], [137].
• —— of Nova Zembla, [154].
• ——, a bird bazar, [154].
• ——, abundance of sea-fowl on the coast of Kamchatka, [255].
• ——, Esquimaux mode of bird-catching, [295].
• ——, abundance of, on the coast of Greenland, [388].
• Birds of the coasts of the Antarctic sea, [394].
• —— of Patagonia, [419].
• Birkarls, their final subjugation of the Lapps, [156].
• Biscoe, his discovery of Enderby Land, and of Graham Land, [401].
• Black death, ravages of the, in the North, [383].
• Blackfeet Indians, their wars with the Tinné and Crees, [319], [320].
• Bloody Falls, on the Coppermine river, [294].
• Boats of the Esquimaux, [293].
• ——, the birch-bark canoes of North America, [304].
• Bogberries of the Arctic regions, [24].
• Booth, Sir Felix, his Arctic expedition, [251].
• Bougainville, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, [414].
• Brandt, the Danish forester, his journey with Von Middendorff, [220].
• Brandy, fondness of the Samoïedes for, [171–173].
• —— drunk at Kolymsk, [238].
• Brant Ysbrantzoon, his voyages of discovery, [339].
• Bread of the poor Icelanders, [79].
• Bredal, Eric, his education of Lapps in Christianity, [156].
• Bridges, swing, of Iceland, [111].
• Browne, T. Ross, [74], [95], [104], [115].
• Buchan, Captain, his Arctic voyage, [344].
• Bunting, its migrations to and from the north, [43].
• ——, the Lapland (Centrophanes Lapponicus), latitudes inhabited by the, [43], [44].
• Bunting, the snow, the polar singing-bird, [44].
• Bunting, its nest and food, [44].
• —— of Iceland, [81].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [137].
• Burglars, treatment of, in Russia, [206].
• Burrough, Stephen, his voyage to discover the north-eastern passage, [336].
• Busa, Jelissei, his ascent of the rivers Lena and Olekma, [195].
• ——, his discovery of the Tana, [195].
• ——, his residence among the Jukahirs, [195].
• Butter made from the reindeer milk, [36].
• Butterflies in Taimurland, [227].
• Byron, Commodore, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, [414].
• C.
• Cabot, John and Sebastian, their re-discovery of parts of North America, [335].
• ——, their re-discovery of Newfoundland, [379].
• Canada, enterprise of the French settlers in, [306].
• ——, results of the English conquest of, [306].
• ——, history of the fur-trade of, [307].
• Cano, Sebastian el, his voyage round the globe, [413].
• Canoes, birch-bark, of North America, [304], [305].
• Cape, North, description of the, [129], [130].
• Caribou, or reindeer of North America, range of the, [36].
• Carrancha, the, of Patagonia, [419], [420].
• Cartier, Jacques, his voyages, [335].
• Caryophyllæ, the, of the treeless zone, [21].
• Cascades of Iceland, [78].
• Castor and Pollux river, discovery of, [356].
• Castrén, Matthias Alexander, account of him and of his journeys, [168–178].
• Catherine’s Foreland, Queen, [409].
• Cattle, value of, to the Icelands, [80].
• Cavendish, his voyages, [414].
• Chancellor, his discovery of the passage from England to the White Sea, [192].
• Chancellor, his voyage to discover the north-eastern route to China, [336].
• ——, his visit to Moscow, and subsequent fate, [336].
• Charles IX., King of Sweden, his kindness to the Lapps, [156].
• Chatanga river, scanty population of the, [220].
• ——, Middendorff’s journey to the, [220], [221].
• Chatangsk, Middendorff’s journey to, [221]
• Cheese made from reindeer milk, [36].
• Cherie Island, account of, [144].
• Chess-players of the Tungusi, [246].
• Chickweed, the, on the Mary Minturn river, [20].
• Chimengo, the, of Patagonia, [419].
• China, Castrén’s journey over the mountains into, [177].
• Chinese take the Russian fort of Albasin, [195];
• and make the treaty of Nertschinsk with the Russians, [196].
• ——, the treaty broken by the Russians, who compel the Chinese to give them the Amoor, [196].
• Chinga (Mephitis chinga), its fœtid secretion, [316].
• Christian IV., King of Denmark, his treatment of the Lapp priests and sorcerers, [156].
• ——, his expedition to Greenland, [383].
• Christianity, introduction of, into Iceland, [92].
• Churches of the Icelanders, [104].
• Clavering, his voyage to Greenland, [386].
• Clergy of the Lapps, their poverty and self-denial, [157].
• ——, their sermons, [157].
• ——, those of Iceland all blacksmiths, [101], note, [106].
• ——, their poverty, [106].
• Coal, does not exist in Iceland, [88].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [137].
• —— in Coal Bay, [145].
• Coal Bay, [145].
• Cochlearia fenestrata, the only esculent plant in Spitzbergen, [136], [142].
• Cod and cod-fishing of the coast of Iceland, [86], [87].
• ——, the, called stockfish, [87].
• ——, the cod-fishery of Norway, [125–130].
• ——, wretched state of the fishermen, [127].
• ——, exports of, to various countries, [129].
• ——, cod-fishery of Greenland, [388].
• ——, value of the cod-fishery of Newfoundland, [379], [380].
• ——, mode of fishing and curing the cod, [380].
• ——, dangers of the fishery, [381].
• ——, immense numbers of, [381].
• Cod-liver oil of Tromsö, [128].
• Collinson, Captain, his search for Franklin, [359], [361].
• Commodore Islands, chase of the sea-bear on the, [274].
• Condor, the, of Patagonia, [420].
• Coniferæ, Arctic forests almost confined to the, [24].
• ——, difference between the European and Asiatic and American species, [24].
• Constitution, Cape, discovery of, [369].
• Cook, his attempt to discover the northwest passage, [344].
• Cook, Captain, his discovery of South Georgia, [393].
• ——, his Antarctic voyages, [401].
• Copper mines near Drontheim, [124].
• —— of Alten, [128].
• —— of Raipass, [128].
• Coppermine river, Dr. Richardson’s voyage to the, [349].
• Cornelius Ryp, his voyages of discovery, [340], [341].
• Cornelius Corneliszoon, his voyages of discovery, [339].
• Corniculariæ, carpets of, and the treeless zone, [21].
• Cortereal, his voyages of discovery, [325].
• Cossacks, Don, their depredations, [192].
• ——, their conquest of Siberia for the Czar, [193].
• ——, their privileges and duties in Nishne-Kolymsk, [236].
• Coureur des bois, the, of North America, [304].
• Cranberries of the Arctic regions, [24].
• Cree Indians, uses of the paper-birch-tree to the, [305].
• ——, range of the various tribes of, [319].
• ——, their conquests of the Tinné, but subsequent defeat, [319], [320].
• ——, their wars with the Blackfeet, [320], [321]
• ——, their character, [321].
• ——, their customs, habits, and dress, [321], [322], [323].
• ——, their wives and families, [323].
• ——, their cradles, [323].
• ——, their wigwams, or tents, [324].
• ——, their medicine-men and vapor-baths, [324].
• ——, their games and sports, [324], [325].
• ——, their wooden figures for worship, [325].
• ——, their malicious or capricious spirit, called Kepoochican, [325].
• ——, their notion of the Great Spirit and of the Deluge, [325].
• ——, their Tartarus and Elysium, [325].
• ——, prospects of Christianity amongst them, [326].
• Cross, the game of, of the Cree Indians, [325].
• Crowe, Mr., his copper mines at Alten, [128].
• Crozier, Captain, his last voyage, [356].
• ——, the last heard of him, [364].
• ——, his Antarctic voyages, [402].
• Cruciferæ, the, of the treeless zone, [20].
• Crustaceans, immense numbers of, on the coast of Greenland, [59].
• Cumberland Strait, Davis’s discovery of, [337], [338].
• Currents, magnificent system of, and their effects on the accumulation of ice, [56], [57].
• D.
• Dances of the Tchuktchi, [266].
• Darwin, Mr., his ascent of Mount Tarn, [411].
• Davis, John, his voyages to discover an Arctic passage to India, [337].
• ——, his visit to Labrador, [338].
• ——, his subsequent life, [338].
• Davis’s Straits, probable influence of the northerly winds on the depression of the temperature of, [27].
• ——, Sebastian Cabot’s discovery of, [335].
• Dead, reverence paid to the, by the Samoïedes, [181].
• Dease, Peter Warren, his land Arctic expedition, [355].
• Death, black, its ravages in Iceland, [95].
• Deception Island, account of, [393].
• Deer, red (Cervus elaphus), its habitat and uses to man, [40].
• Deer of Vogelsang and Treurenberg Bay, [137].
• Deluge, Cree legend of the, [325].
• Demidoff, foundation of the family of, [219].
• ——, their enormous wealth, [219].
• Deschnew, Semen, his the first and last voyage through Bering’s Strait, [197].
• Desolation, South, [412].
• Detti-foss, an Icelandic cascade, Mr. Gould’s description of the, [78].
• Disco bay, icebergs formed in, [49].
• Divers, their migrations to and from the north, [42].
• Dog-rib Indians, hunting-grounds of the, [327].
• ——, their character, dress, and customs, [327], [329].
• ——, their want of hospitality, [329].
• ——, their honesty, [329].
• ——, their notions of a future life, [329].
• Dog, the reindeer of the Lapps, [161].
• ——, Wrangell’s dog-sledges on the Polar sea, [239].
• ——, Icelandic, [80].
• ——, the, of the people of Kolymsk, [236].
• ——, the Kamchatkan, and dog-sledges, [258], [259].
• ——, their mode of foretelling storms, [259].
• ——, mode of training sledge-dogs, [259].
• ——, trained by Esquimaux to attack the bear, [297].
• ——, description of the, and dog-sledges of the Esquimaux, [299].
• ——, Dr. Kane’s Newfoundland and Esquimaux, [367].
• ——, epidemic amongst the Esquimaux, [372].
• Dolgorouky, Prince, his exile to Siberia, [205].
• Dolphin, white, or beluga, of Nova Zembla, [155].
• ——, Greenland fishery of the, [387].
• Dolphins of the Polar seas, [61], [398].
• ——, the beluga, or white dolphin, [61].
• ——, the black dolphin, “ca’ing” whale, or grind, [61].
• ——, the orc, or grampus, [62].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [137].
• Drake, Sir Francis, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, [414].
• Drifanda Foss, an icelandic cascade, [114].
• Drontheim, the red deer near, [40].
• ——, description of, [124].
• Ducks, wild, of the Arctic regions, [19].
• ——, their migrations to and from the north, [42].
• —— of Iceland, [81], [84].
• Dudinka, Castrén’s visit to, [176].
• Dungeness, Point, [409].
• Durfoorth, his voyage and death, [336].
• D’Urville, Dumont, his discoveries in the Antarctic ocean, [402].
• Dutch, their expeditions to discover an Arctic passage to India, [339].
• E.
• Eagle, the sea- (Haliætus albicilla), of the north, [44].
• ——, his food, [44].
• ——, white-tailed, of Iceland, [85].
• ——, value of the skins of the, [85].
• ——, the, on the coast of Norway, [125].
• ——, in the Tundra in summer, [19].
• Ebierbing, [441], [466].
• Egede, Hans, his voyage to Greenland, [384].
• Egg-väre of the coast of Norway, [124].
• Egilson, Olaf, the Westman clergyman, his slavery in Algiers, [118].
• Eider-duck, its migrations to and from the north, [43].
• —— of Iceland, [81].
• ——, breeding of, [83].
• ——, Mr. Shepherd’s visit to one of its head-quarters, [83].
• Elder, the, in the Arctic regions, [24].
• Elephant, sea-, of the Antarctic ocean, [399].
• Elk, or moose deer, of the forests of the north, [38].
• ——, Cæsar’s account of it, [39].
• ——, its food and present habitat, [40].
• Elk, its mode of defending itself, [40].
• Enara, Lake of, the Fisher Lapps of, [166].
• ——, description of the, [169].
• Enderby Land, discovery of, [401].
• English pirates, ravages of, in Iceland, [95].
• Erebus, mount, eruption of, [403].
• Eric the Red, his visit to Greenland, [382].
• Ermine (Mustela erminea) beauty and importance of the fur of the, [210].
• ——, those of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, [316].
• Esk, volcano, [146].
• Esquimaux (see also [Innuits]), their wide extension, [290].
• ——, their own name of Innuit, [290].
• ——, character of the regions they inhabit, [290].
• ——, their physical character, habits, and manners, [290], [291].
• —— women, [291].
• ——, their dress and snow-huts, [291], [292].
• ——, their boat, the kayak or baidar, [293].
• ——, their weapons, and fishing and hunting implements, [293], [294].
• ——, enmity between them and the Red Indians, [294].
• ——, their chase of the reindeer, and bird-catching, [295].
• ——, their whale and seal hunts, [295], [296].
• ——, their “keep kuttuk,” [296].
• ——, their bear and walrus hunts, [296], [298].
• ——, their dogs and dog-sledges, [299].
• ——, their games and sports, [300].
• ——, constitution of their society, [300].
• ——, their angekoks, or priests, [300], [301].
• ——, their moral character, self-reliance, and intelligence, [301], [302].
• ——, their maps, and predilection for commercial pursuits, [302].
• ——, their voracity, and seasons of abundance and distress, [302], [303].
• ——, their dépôts of food, [302], [303].
• ——, their wars with the Kutchin Indians, [333].
• ——, their attack of Franklin’s boats, [349].
• ——, their hunting expeditions with Dr. Kane’s party, [370].
• ——, their ravages on the Greenland coast, [383].
• Europe, treeless zone of, [18–24].
• Evil Spirit of the woods of the Laplanders, [157].
• Exiles, Siberian, [204], [205].
• ——, annual number of, [206].
• Eyjafialla, eruption of, in 1821, [96].
• Eystein, King, his benevolence, [126].
• F.
• Faeroe Islands, chase of the black dolphin, or “ca’ing” whale, in the, [61].
• Falkland Islands, climate of, [394].
• Famine, Port, rich vegetation of, [410], [414].
• Festuca of the Arctic regions, [20].
• Finback whales of Spitzbergen, [137].
• Finches in the Tundra in summer, [19].
• Finmark, trade and fisheries of the coast of, [129].
• Finnur Johnson, the Icelander, his “Ecclesiastical History of Iceland,” [98].
• Fir, different species of, in Europe, Asia, and America, [24].
• Fish, and fishing season of Iceland, [86].
• ——, abundance of, in Kamchatka, [255].
• —— of Newfoundland, [379].
• —— of Greenland, [387].
• Fish river, Great, Back’s discovery of, [355].
• Fisher Lapps, account of the, [166].
• Fiskernasset, cod-fishery of, [388].
• Fitzroy, Captain, his surveys of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, [415].
• Fjall Lappars, or Mountain Lapps, account of the, [159].
• Flatey, eider-ducks of, [81], [82].
• Flat-fish, abundance of, on the coasts of Iceland, [87].
• Floki, the Viking, his visit to Iceland, [90].
• Flora of Spitzbergen, [136].
• Flowers of the Arctic regions, [20].
• —— of the island of St. Lawrence, [271].
• —— of Taimurland, [226].
• —— of Unalaschka, [269].
• Fogs of the Arctic seas in summer, [54].
• —— near the island of St. Lawrence, [270].
• —— off Newfoundland, [380].
• Food, amount of, required by man in the Arctic regions, [28].
• Forest regions, Arctic, [18].
• ——, extent of the, [22].
• ——, character of the trees of the, [24].
• ——, distinctive character of the forests, [25].
• ——, characters of the Arctic forests of the Miocene period, [28], [29].
• ——, legions of gnats in the, [25].
• ——, changes being effected by the agency of man, [25].
• Forests, the, head-quarters of many of the Arctic fauna, [41].
• ——, more in than above the earth in Nova Zembla, [153].
• ——, of Newfoundland, [376].
• Forget-me-not found in Nova Zembla, [153].
• Forster, Captain, his expedition to the Antarctic sea, [393].
• Fossils, Arctic, in New Siberia, [203].
• Foulke, Port, Dr. Hayes’s winter at, [372].
• Fox, the Arctic (Canis lagopus), its mode of protecting itself from the most intense cold, [42].
• Fox, the Arctic, its food and enemies, [42].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [137].
• —— in Nova Zembla, [154].
• —— found in Taimurland, [227].
• —— of Newfoundland, [378].
• ——, black, of Siberia, value of the fur of the, [211].
• ——, the Brazilian (Canis Azaræ), of Patagonia, [419].
• —— red (Vulpes fulvus), the, [211], [317].
• —— value of the fur of the, [317].
• Fox Islands, discovery of the, [201].
• France, right of the people of, to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, [379].
• Franklin, Lieut. (afterwards Sir John), his first Arctic voyage, [344].
• ——, his first land journey, [346].
• ——, his second land journey to the shores of the Polar sea, [349].
• ——, loss of his first wife, [350].
• ——, his last voyage, [356].
• ——, searching expeditions sent for him, [356].
• ——, his fate and that of his companions, [362–364].
• Franklin Island, discovery of, [403].
• Fraser river, voyage of Mackenzie down the, [308].
• Frederick II., King of Denmark, his expedition to Greenland, [383].
• Frederick IV., his foundation of the Finmark mission, [156].
• Friedrich, the Saxon bishop, introduces Christianity into Iceland, [92].
• Fritillaria Sarrana, used as food in Kamchatka, [258].
• Frobisher, Martin, his endeavors to discover an Arctic passage to India, [337].
• ——, discovery of relics of, [466].
• ——, his subsequent career, [337].
• Froward, Cape, scenery of, [410].
• Frozen sailor, [464].
• Fruits of the Arctic regions, [21].
• Fuego, Tierra del, climate of, [393].
• ——, origin of the name, [413].
• ——, Captain Fitzroy’s survey of, [415].
• ——, account of the Fuegians, [425].
• ——, degradation of the Fuegians, [425], [426].
• ——, their powers as mimics, [426].
• ——, their notions of trade, [427].
• ——, causes of their low state of civilization, [427].
• ——, their food, [428].
• ——, their dress, huts, arms, and ornaments, [428], [429].
• ——, their cannibalism, [430].
• ——, their language, [430].
• ——, Captain Fitzroy’s three Fuegians, [430], [431].
• ——, missionary labors, [431].
• ——, Captain Gardiner, [431].
• Fuel, kinds of, used in Iceland, [89].
• Fur, account of the Russian Fur Company, and its operations, [272].
• ——, account of the fur-trade of the Hudson’s Bay Company, [304] et seq.
• ——, trade in, at the fair of Obdorsk, [189].
• —— of Siberia, [208].
• ——, importance of the trade in, [212].
• —— of the Tchuktchi, [264].
• G.
• Gabriel Channel, williwaws of, [412].
• Gadflies which attack the reindeer, [38].
• Galictis vittata, the, of Patagonia, [418].
• Gambling of the Cree Indians, [324].
• Gardar, the northern pirate, his the first circumnavigation of Iceland, [90].
• Gardar’s Holm, or Gadar’s Island, Iceland so called, [90].
• Gardiner, Captain, his mission to Fuegia, and melancholy end, [431].
• Gawrilow, produce of the gold mine of, [218].
• Geese, wild, of the Arctic regions, [19].
• ——, snow, their migrations to and from the north, [43].
• —— of Iceland, [81].
• “George Henry,” the ship, [436].
• George, St., climate of the island of, [270].
• ——, sea-lions and guillemots of, [271].
• Georgia, South, discovery of, [393].
• Germany, the elk or moose-deer of, in the time of Cæsar, [39].
• Geysir, the Great, description of the, [71].
• Gheritz, Dirck, his discovery of the New Shetland Islands, [392].
• Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, takes possession of Newfoundland, [379].
• Ginkloti, or children’s disease, in the Westman Islands, [118].
• Gissur, his work on his voyages to the East, [94].
• ——, the Icelander, his learning and travels, [98].
• Gjas, or chasms, in Iceland, [76], [77].
• Glacier, the great, in the Gulf of Penas, [394].
• Glaciers, enormous dimensions of the, of the polar regions, [50].
• Glaciers of Magdalena Bay, [135];
• ice cliffs and avalanches of, [135].
• —— of the Beerenberg mountain, [146].
• Glottoff, Stephen, his discovery of Kadiak, [202].
• Gloves, reindeer, of Tornea, [37].
• Glutton, or wolverine, strength and fierceness of the, [37].
• Glutton, its attack of the reindeer, [37], [38].
• ——, its voracity, [38].
• ——, found in Taimurland, [227].
• ——, those of North America, [316].
• ——, value and uses of the fur of the, [316].
• Gnats, legions of, in the forests and swamps, [26].
• Goda-foss, the, an Icelandic cascade, [78].
• Gold diggings of Eastern Siberia, [208].
• ——, description of the gold-fields, [214].
• Gomez, his voyages of discovery, [335].
• Goose, bean (Anser segetum), of Nova Zembla, [155].
• Goose, Brent, its migrations to and from the north, [43].
• ——, its rapid flight, [43].
• Graah, Captain, his explorations of the coast of Greenland, [386].
• Graham Land, discovery of, [401].
• Grampus, or orc (Delphinus orca), description of the, [62].
• ——, his ferocity and mode of ploughing the seas, [62].
• —— of Nova Zembla, [155].
• —— of the Antarctic Ocean, [398].
• ——, conflict of one with a whale, [398].
• Grasses, tufted, of the Arctic regions, [20].
• —— of the treeless zone, [21].
• ——, paramount importance of the grasses in Iceland, [79].
• —— of Taimurland, [226].
• Greenland, vast ice-fields of, [27].
• ——, proofs of a former milder climate in, [29].
• ——, enormous dimensions of the glaciers of, [50].
• ——, the, whale, [60].
• ——, transparency of the water on the coast of, [59].
• ——, abundance of animal life in the seas of, [60].
• ——, walruses of the coasts of the north of, [64].
• ——, Kane’s sledge journey along the coast of, [367].
• ——, unknown extent of, [382].
• ——, ancient Scandinavian colonists of, [382].
• ——, the name of, given to it, [382].
• ——, introduction of Christianity in, [382].
• ——, decline and fall of the country, [383].
• ——, subsequent explorations of, [383].
• ——, Hans Egede, the pastor, his voyage to, [384].
• ——, foundation of Godthaab in, [384].
• ——, arrival of Herrenhuth missionaries in, [384].
• ——, explorations of the coast of, [385].
• ——, present Danish settlements of, [386].
• ——, scanty population of, [386].
• ——, mode of life of the people of, [386], [387], [389].
• ——, fisheries of, [388].
• ——, poorness of the land in, [388].
• ——, quantities of drift-wood at, [388].
• ——, minerals of, [389].
• ——, Christianity in, [389].
• ——, climate, mountains, and fjords of, [389].
• ——, ice-caves of the coast of, [390].
• ——, the capital of, [437].
• Greenlanders, their discovery of, and colonies in America, [335].
• ——, destruction of their colonies, [335].
• ——, their habits, [437].
• Greiffenfeld, his imprisonment in Munkholm, [124].
• Grinds. See [Dolphins, black].
• Grinnell Land, vegetation of, [20].
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s discoveries in, [372–374].
• Guanaco, the, of Patagonia, [419].
• Guano, circumstances which favor the deposit of, [418].
• Guillemot, on the Pribilow Islands, [271].
• Gulf Stream, influence of, on the south and west coasts of Iceland, [79];
• and on the climate of Norway, [121].
• Gull, Ross’s, distance north at which it has been seen, [67].
• Gull, ivory, in Taimurland, [227].
• Gustavus I., King of Sweden, his kind treatment of the Lapps, [156].
• Gustavus Adolphus, his foundation of a school for the Lapps, [156].
• H.
• Haddocks, abundance of, on the coast of Iceland, [87].
• Hakon, King of Norway, his annexation of Iceland, [95].
• Hall, Charles Francis, his Arctic expedition, [433–467].
• ——, James, his voyage to Greenland, [383].
• Hammerfest, description of the town of, [129].
• ——, traffic of, [129].
• ——, the people of, [129].
• ——, cargoes of walruses and seals brought from Spitzbergen, [143].
• Hare, the fur of the, of Siberia, [212].
• ——, ice (Lepus glacialis), [317].
• ——found in Taimurland, [227].
• Hare Indians, hunting-grounds of the, [327].
• ——, their women, [328].
• Harold Haafager, or the Fair-haired, his establishment of an absolute monarchy in Norway, [90].
• ——, exodus caused by his tyranny, [91].
• Harp-seal of the Polar seas, [62].
• Hatherton, Cape, discovery of, [365].
• Haven, Lieut, de, his search for Franklin, [357], [358].
• Hawks in the Tundra, in summer, [19].
• Hayes, Dr., his sledge journey over Kennedy Channel, [368].
• ——, his Arctic voyage in 1860, [372–374].
• ——, his opinion as to what may be done in the Arctic regions, [374].
• Hecla, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, [95–97].
• “Hecla” and “Fury” Straits, discovery of, [348].
• Heemskerk, his voyages of discovery, [340].
• Heineson, Mogens, the “sea-cock,” his voyage towards Greenland, [383].
• Hepburn, John, the sailor, his overland journey, [346].
• Herald Island, discovery of, [360].
• Heimaey, or Home Island, description of, [116].
• Herring, the fishery of the coast of Norway, [125].
• ——, food for the rorqual, or fin-whales, [61].
• ——, abundance of the, on the coasts of Iceland, [87].
• Hesperis, the, on the Mary Minturn river, [20].
• Hildringen, agriculture of, [124].
• Hobson, Lieut., his search for Franklin, [362], [364].
• Holme, the, of Norway, [124].
• Hood, Robert, his Arctic journey, [346].
• ——, murdered, [347].
• Horn, Cape, discovery of the passage round, [414].
• Horse, the, in Iceland, [80].
• —— of the Jakuts, [230–232].
• Hrafnagja, [75].
• Hudson, Henry, visit of, to Spitzbergen, [138].
• ——, his the first attempt to sail across the North Pole, [342].
• ——, his subsequent voyages and discoveries, [342].
• ——, his melancholy end, [343].
• Hudson’s Bay, barren lands of, [22].
• ——, characters of the Coniferæ of, [24].
• ——, walruses of the coasts of, [64].
• ——, discovery of, [312].
• Hudson’s Bay Company, account of the fur-trade of the, [304].
• ——, the old coureur des bois and the modern voyageur of, [304], [305].
• ——, history of the, [307].
• ——, formation of a rival company, and subsequent amalgamation of the two, [307–310].
• ——, palmy days of the, [310].
• ——, its reconstruction in 1863, [310].
• ——, its trading-posts, and their management, [310], [311].
• ——, its efforts to civilize the native tribes, [312].
• ——, the standard of exchange, the beaver-skin, [313].
• ——, extent of the fur-trade of, [313].
• ——, account of the fur-bearing animals of the Territory, [313], [314].
• Hudson river, discovery of the, [342].
• Hudson’s Straits, Sebastian Cabot’s discovery of, [335].
• Humboldt Glacier, the Great, [50].
• ——, Kane’s description of the, [367].
• Humming-bird on the peninsula of Aliaska, [269].
• —— in Newfoundland, [378].
• —— of Patagonia, [420].
• Huts of the Esquimaux, [293].
• —— of the Icelanders, [102].
• Hvalö, island of, [129].
• Hvita river, in Iceland, [78].
• I.
• Ice, vast fields of, in the plateaus of Spitzbergen, Greenland, and Nova Zembla, [27].
• ——, floating masses of, in the Polar seas, [45].
• ——, enormous extent of the Polar glaciers, [49], [50].
• ——, causes which prevent the accumulation of Polar ice, [55], [56].
• ——, a bad conductor of heat, [57].
• ——, ice-fields of Iceland, [69].
• ——, glaciers, ice-cliffs, and avalanches of Spitzbergen, [135], [136].
• ——, impediments offered by the hummocks to travellers on the Polar sea, [240].
• ——, icebergs of the Antarctic sea, [392].
• ——, ice-caves of Greenland, [390].
• ——, the great ice-barrier of the Antarctic Ocean, [403].
• ——, pack-ice of the Antarctic Ocean, [404], [405].
• Icebergs, [46].
• ——, forms and size of, [48].
• ——, origin of, [48].
• ——, localities in which most of the icebergs of the North Atlantic are formed, [49].
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s description of, in a midnight sun, [50].
• ——, how distinguished at night and in fogs, [52].
• ——, dangers of collisions with, [52].
• ——, protection to ships afforded by, [53].
• ——, dangers of anchoring to, [53].
• Icebergs, “calving” of, [54].
• ——, crumbling of, [54].
• Ice-blink, description of the phenomenon of, [54].
• ——, its advantages to the Arctic navigator, [54].
• Ice-fields, [46].
• ——, hummocks on, [46].
• ——, collision of, [48].
• ——, dangers caused by, to ships, [48].
• Ice-grotto of Surts-hellir, [77].
• Iceland, volcanic origin of, [68].
• ——, the country in winter and in summer, [68], [79].
• ——, sterile portions of the island, [69].
• ——, its immense ice-fields, [69].
• ——, its lava-streams, [69], [77].
• ——, the burning mountains of Krisuvik, [69].
• ——, the mud-caldrons and hot springs, [70].
• ——, the Great Geysir, [71].
• ——, the Strokkr, [72].
• ——, crystal pools, [73].
• ——, the Almannagja, [73], [74].
• ——, the Surts-hellir, or caves of Surtur, [77].
• ——, rivers and cascades of, [78].
• ——, influence of the ocean currents on the climate, [78].
• ——, mean annual temperature, [79].
• ——, absence of trees in, [79].
• ——, vegetation and condition of agriculture, [79].
• ——, indigenous land quadrupeds, [80].
• ——, cattle of the Icelanders, [80].
• ——, beverages, [80].
• ——, mode of shearing sheep, [80].
• ——, characteristics and number of horses, [80].
• ——, the reindeer, [80], [81].
• ——, the polar bear, [81].
• ——, the eider-duck, [81], [88].
• ——, the giant auk, [85], [86].
• ——, Icelandic fish and fishing season, [86], [87].
• ——, hospitality of the people, [87].
• ——, minerals of the country, [88].
• ——, fuel used by the Icelanders, [88].
• ——, history of, [89].
• ——, Naddodr’s discovery of the Ice Land, [89];
• which he named Snowland, [99].
• ——, circumnavigated by the pirate Gadar, and called by him Gardar’s holm, [90].
• ——, visited by the viking Floki, and called by him Iceland, [90].
• ——, foundation of Reykjavik by Ingolfr and Leif, [90].
• ——, exodus from Norway to, [91].
• ——, introduction of the Norwegian language and customs, [91].
• ——, code of laws of Uffliot the Wise, [91].
• ——, the ancient Althing at Thingvalla, [91], [92].
• ——, introduction of Christianity into the island, [92].
• ——, the golden age of Icelandic literature, [94].
• ——, history of, annexation of the island to Norway, [95].
• ——, its subsequent misfortunes, [95].
• ——, volcanic eruptions, [95].
• ——, misery caused by the curse of monopoly, [97].
• ——, hope for the future of the islanders, [97].
• ——, account of the Icelanders of the present day, [98].
• ——, Skalkott, the former capital of the island, [98].
• ——, the present capital, Reykjavik, [100].
• ——, state of trade in, [100].
• ——, the merchant and the peasant, [101].
• ——, temperate habits of the people, [101].
• ——, condition of agriculture, [102].
• Iceland, a harvest home, [102].
• ——, winter life, [102], [108], [109].
• ——, huts of the Icelanders, [102], [103].
• ——, churches, [104].
• ——, clergymen all blacksmiths, [101], note, [106];
• their poverty, [106–108].
• ——, the Iceland poet, John Thorlakson, [107].
• ——, education of the clergy and children, [108], [109].
• ——, industry and thirst for knowledge of the people, [109];
• their language, [109].
• ——, the library of Reykjavik, [109].
• ——, the Icelandic Literary Society, [110].
• ——, Icelandic newspapers, [110].
• ——, health of the people, [110].
• ——, difficulties and expense of travelling, [110–113].
• —— moss, eaten and exported by the Icelanders, [79].
• —— moss, food for the deer of Spitzbergen, [137].
• ——, in the treeless zone, [21].
• Idols of the Samoïedes, [180].
• Igloolik, island of, [348].
• Iligliuk, the Esquimaux, her intelligence and passion for music, [348].
• Indians, Red, their enmity with the Esquimaux, [294].
• ——, their decimation by smallpox and drunkenness, [308].
• ——, efforts of the Hudson’s Bay Company to civilize them, [312], [313].
• ——, the beaver skin their standard of exchange with the Company, [313].
• Inglefield, Captain, his search for Franklin, [359].
• ——, his discoveries, [365].
• Ingolfr, the Norwegian yarl, his visit to Iceland, and foundation of Reykjavik, [90].
• Innuits, the, see also [Esquimaux], [433], [467].
• ——, their character, [439], [461].
• ——, amusement of, [440].
• ——, their dwellings, [443], [457], [462].
• ——, distress in winter, [444].
• ——, seal, feasts of, [445].
• ——, mode of capturing seals, [446], [448], [452].
• ——, their dogs, [445], [450], [454].
• ——, their opinion of the bear, [451].
• ——, mode of hunting the walrus, [454].
• ——, their implements, [456].
• ——, mode of constructing an igloo, [457].
• ——, their use of the reindeer, [458].
• ——, their clothing, [460].
• ——, reindeer feasts, [459].
• ——, food and mode of eating, [460].
• ——, their religious ideas, [460].
• ——, treatment of the sick, [461].
• ——, gradual extinction, [462].
• Insects of Taimurland, [227].
• Irish colonists on the Westman Islands, [115].
• Irkutsk, extreme cold of, [208].
• ——, Wrangell’s visit to, [233].
• ——, summer flowers of, [233].
• Iron mines near Drontheim, [124].
• Isabella, Cape, discovery of, [365].
• Ishemsk, Castrén’s visit to, [174].
• ——, the Isprawnik of, and his wife, [174], [176].
• Islands within the Arctic Circle, barren grounds of the, [18].
• Isleif, the oldest chronicler of the North, [98].
• Issakow, of Kem, rounds the north-eastern extremity of Nova Zembla, [150].
• Itälmenes, cruelty of their conquerors, the Russians, [198].
• Ivan Wasiljewitsch I., first Czar of Russia, his defeat of the Tartars, [191].
• Ivan Wasiljewitsch I., subdues the Great Novgorod, [191].
• ——, becomes head of the Greek orthodox Church and the first Czar, [192].
• ——, Chancellor’s visit to him at Moscow, [336].
• Ivan Wasiljewitsch II., his conquest of Kasan, [192].
• ——, his surname of the Terrible, [192].
• Ivory, fossil, in the islands of New Siberia, [202].
• Iwalo river, in Lapland, Castrén’s journey on the, [169].
• J.
• Jakowlew family, [219].
• ——, their enormous wealth in gold mines, [219].
• Jakuts, the, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, [199].
• ——, their snares and traps, [213].
• ——, their energy and cunning, [228].
• ——, their language, origin, character, and personal appearance, [228].
• ——, their summer and winter huts, [229].
• ——, their horses, [230].
• ——, their powers of endurance and sharpness of vision, [230].
• ——, their manufactures and articles of dress, [231].
• ——, their gluttony, [231].
• ——, the universal carriers to the east of the Lena, [231].
• ——, their superstitions, [232].
• ——, their offerings of horsehair to the spirit of the mountains, [232].
• ——, their songs, [232].
• ——, wretched condition of the river, [252].
• Jakutsk, mean temperature of, in summer and winter, [27].
• ——, extreme cold of, [208].
• ——, gloomy appearance of the town, [233].
• ——, trade of, [233].
• Jan Meyen, description of, [146].
• Jelly, made from the horns and claws of the reindeer, [37].
• Jelly-fish (Pleurobrachia pileus) in the sea of Kara, [151].
• Jenissei river, Castrén’s journey to the, [176].
• Jeniseisk, Castrén’s visit to, [177].
• ——, the ostrog of, founded, [195].
• Jyrfalcon (Falco gyrfalco), its head-quarters in Iceland, [85].
• ——, former trade in the, [85].
• Jilibeambaertje, or Num, the Supreme Being of the Samoïedes, [179].
• “John, Gentleman,” the English pirate, [118].
• John’s, St., capital of Newfoundland, [378].
• Jökuls, or ice-mountains of Iceland, [68].
• Jökulsa i Axarfirdi river, in Iceland, [78].
• Jökulsa river, in Iceland, [78].
• Jones’s Sound, discovery of the entrance to, [343].
• Jukahires, chief resource of those of the Aniuj, [237].
• ——, Jelissei Busa’s residence among the, [195].
• K.
• Kadiak, island of, discovery of the, [202].
• Kaiak, island of, landing of Stella on the, [249].
• “Kalewala,” Castrén’s Swedish translation of the, [170].
• Kamchatka, subjugation of, by the Russians, [198].
• ——, cruelty of the conquerors, [198].
• Kamchatka, Steller’s scientific journey to, [248].
• ——, its climate and fertility, [254].
• ——, abundance of fish in the rivers, [255].
• ——, bird-catchers of, [255].
• ——, population, [255].
• ——, mountain chain and volcanoes, [256].
• ——, climate and mineral springs, [256].
• ——, harbors and population, [256].
• ——, healthiness of the people, [257].
• ——, their food, [258].
• ——, their animals, [258], [260].
• ——, character of the people, [260], [261].
• Kane, Dr., his Arctic voyages, [365].
• ——, his account of his first winter in Rensselaer Bay, [365].
• ——, his description of the Polar night, [366].
• ——, his sledge journey along the coast of Greenland, [367].
• ——, his illness on the voyage and recovery, [368].
• ——, resolves to winter a second time in Rensselaer Bay, [369].
• ——, departure and return of part of his crew, [369], [370].
• ——, sufferings of his party, [371].
• ——, abandonment of his ship, and boat journey to Upernavik, [371].
• ——, his return to New York, and death, [372].
• Kara Gate, reached by Stephen Burrough, [336].
• Kara, Sea of, [147].
• ——, expeditions to the, [147].
• Kasan, Russian conquest of, [192].
• Kellett, Captain, his search for Franklin, [359].
• Kendall, Lieut., his voyage to the Coppermine river, [349].
• ——, his account of Deception Island, [393].
• Kennedy, William, his search for Franklin, [358].
• ——, his sledge journey with Bellot, [359].
• Kennedy Channel, Dr. Hayes’s sledge journey across, [368].
• ——, his voyage across, [373].
• Kerguelen Land, climate of, [393].
• Khipsack, destruction of the empire of the Khans of, [191].
• King, Captain, his survey of the Magellan Strait, [415].
• King William’s Island, coast of, traced by Mr. Thomas Simpson, [356].
• Klofa jökul, extent of the, [69].
• Knight, John, his melancholy Arctic voyage, [341].
• ——, murdered by the Esquimaux, [342].
• Koldewey, Captain, his journey towards the North Pole, [374].
• Kolwa, Castrén’s visit to, [174].
• Kolyma river, inundations of the, [237].
• Kolymsk, Nishnei, foundation of the town of, [197].
• ——, Wrangell’s visit to, [234].
• ——, situation and climate of, [234].
• ——, vegetable and animal life, [235].
• ——, population of the district, [236].
• ——, dwellings of the Russian residents, [236].
• ——, mode of life of the natives, [236], [237].
• ——, their dogs, [236], [237].
• ——, berry-gathering in the district, [238].
• ——, famine of the people, [238].
• ——, social parties at, [238].
• Koriaks, the, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, [199].
• Koronnoie Filippowskoi, Von Middendorff’s journey to, [221].
• Kostin Schar, visit of Von Baer to, [152].
• ——, storm in, [152].
• Kötlugja, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, [95], [97].
• Krasnojarsk, Castrén’s visit to, [175], [176].
• ——, extravagance of the gold aristocracy of, [218].
• Krenitzin, his discovery of the peninsula of Aljaska, [202].
• Kresdowosdwishensk, produce of the gold mine of, [218].
• Krisuvik, burning mountains of, [69].
• Krotow, Lieutenant, lost off Nova Zembla, [147].
• Kutchin Indians, their dwelling-place, [331].
• ——, their personal appearance and dress, [331].
• ——, their medium of exchange, [331].
• ——, their women and children, [332].
• ——, their amusements, [332].
• ——, their wars with the Esquimaux, [333].
• ——, their suspicious and timorous lives, [333].
• ——, their mode of pounding the moose-deer, [333].
• ——, their frequent distress, [334].
• ——, their huts, [334].
• Kutchum Khan, his conquest of Siberia, [192].
• ——, defeated by Yermak the robber, at Tobolsk, [193], [194].
• ——, his revenge, [194].
• L.
• Labrador, barren lands of, [22].
• ——, effect of the icy seas and cold currents on the climate of, [22].
• ——, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, [335].
• Lächow Islands, discovery of the, [202].
• Lagarfliot river, in Iceland, [78].
• Lakes of Newfoundland, [377].
• Lambert, M. Gustave, his opinion as to the route to the Pole, [375].
• Lancaster Sound, discovery of the entrance to, [343].
• Lapps, their history and conversion to Christianity, [156].
• ——, poverty and self-denial of their clergy, [157].
• ——, their ancient gods and present superstitions, [156], [157].
• ——, Evil Spirit of the woods, [157].
• ——, sorcery and witchcraft, [158].
• ——, their personal appearance, [158].
• Lappars, the Fjall, or Mountain Lapps, [159].
• ——, their dwellings, [159].
• ——, their reindeer pens, [160].
• ——, their summer and winter encampments, [161].
• ——, their sledges and skates, [161].
• ——, natural beauties of their country, [162].
• ——, their love of home, [162].
• ——, their mode of hunting the bear and the wolf, [163], [164].
• ——, the wealthy, and their mode of living, [164].
• ——, their annual visits to the fairs, [165].
• ——, their drunkenness, [165].
• ——, their worship of mammon, treasure hoarding, [165].
• ——, their fondness for brandy and tobacco, [165].
• ——, their affectionate disposition, [166].
• ——, the Skogslappars, or Forest Lapps, [166].
• ——, the Fisher, [166].
• Laptew, Lieut. Cheriton, his explorations of the coasts of Taimurland, [200].
• ——, his explorations to the east of the Lena, [200].
• Larch, the, of Siberia, [24].
• ——, of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, [24].
• Lawrence, St., climate and vegetation of the island of, [271].
• Lava streams of Iceland, [69], [77].
• ——, streams of, thrown out by the great eruption of Skaptar Jökul, [95–97].
• Laxaa, or Salmon river, abundance of fish caught in the, [87].
• Leif, the Norwegian jarl, his visit to Iceland, [90].
• ——, murdered by his Irish slaves, [91].
• Lemming, its habitat and food. [42].
• ——, exaggerations of Olaus Magnus and Pontoppidan respecting the, [42].
• ——, its enemies, and accidents to which it is liable, [42].
• ——of New Siberia, [27].
• ——of Nova Zembla, [154].
• Lena river, ascended by the Cossacks, [195].
• ——, importance of the, [17].
• ——, barren grounds near the, [22].
• ——, Wrangell’s journey down the, [233].
• Leprosy, or “likthra,” of Iceland, [110].
• Lichens, gray, of the “barren grounds,” [18].
• ——, food for the reindeer, [27].
• ——, the Lichen rangiferinus, the food of the reindeer, [36].
• ——of Nova Zembla, [153].
• ——of the Pribilow Islands, [271].
• Liddon, Lieut. M., his Arctic voyages, [345].
• Lindenow, Godske, his voyage to Greenland, [383].
• Lion, sea- (Otaria Stelleri), value of the skin of the, [276].
• ——, the sea-, of the Antarctic Ocean, [399].
• Lister, Cape, discovery of, [385].
• Lithuania, the elk of, [39].
• Loaisa, Garcia de, his voyage round the globe, [413].
• Lofoten Islands, the, [125].
• ——, cod-fishery of the, [125], [126].
• Looming objects in the Arctic regions, [55].
• Loschkin, the walrus-hunter, his voyage on the coast of Nova Zembla, [147].
• Löstadius, the Lapp priest, his self-denial and poverty, [157].
• Loucheux. See [Kutchin Indians].
• Louis-Philippe Terre, discovery of, [402].
• Lovunnen, puffins of, [125].
• Löwenorn, his voyage to Greenland, [385].
• Lütke, Admiral, his endeavors to penetrate along the coast of Nova Zembla, [147].
• Lychnis, purple, of the Arctic regions, [20].
• Lynx, Canada, or pishu (Lynx Canadensis), [317].
• ——, value of the fur of the, [212], [317].
• Lyon, Captain, his unsuccessful voyage, [348].
• M.
• Mackenzie, Alexander, his voyages of discovery in North America, [308].
• Mackenzie river, importance of the, [17].
• ——, forests and barren lands near the, [22].
• ——, influence of the southerly winds on the temperature of the valley of the, [27].
• ——, discovery of the, [308].
• Maesnikow, Nikita, his gold-fields in Eastern Siberia, [214], [217], [218].
• Magdalena Bay, description of, [133].
• Magellan, Strait of, [408].
• ——, description of the, [408].
• ——, entrances to, [409].
• ——, opening into the Pacific, [411].
• ——, discovery of the, by Magellan, [413].
• ——, Sir J. Narborough’s chart, [414].
• ——, Captains King and Fitzroy’s surveys of, [415].
• Magerö, island of, [129].
• Magicians of the Samoïedes, [180], [181].
• Malewinsky, Lieutenant, his gold mine of Olginsk, [218].
• Maelstrom, the, [126].
• Mammoth, fossil remains of the, in New Siberia, [202].
• Man, his difficulty in establishing a footing in the Arctic regions, [17].
• ——, how he is able to stand the rigors of an Arctic winter, [28].
• Maps of the Esquimaux, [302].
• Mariinsk, station of, built by the Russians, [196].
• ——, gold mine of, [217].
• Marshes of Newfoundland, [377].
• Marten, pine (Martes abietum), the, [316].
• ——, value of the fur of the, [316].
• Mary Minturn river, flowers of, [20].
• Matiuschkin, his sledge journey over the Polar Sea, [241].
• Matoschkin Schar, visits to, [147–152].
• Matthew, St., island of, inhospitable character of the, [271].
• Matthew’s Straits, visited by Rosmysslow, Pachtussow, and Herr von Baer, [147–152].
• McClintock, Lieut. (now Sir Leopold), his search for Franklin, [360].
• ——, his voyage in the “Fox,” and discovery of the fate of Franklin and his companions, [362–364].
• McClure, Captain, his search for Franklin, [359–361].
• ——, his discovery of the north-west passage, [360].
• Mecham, Lieut., his search for Franklin, [360].
• Mediterranean, dried codfish sent to the, [129].
• Medusæ, enormous numbers of, in the Polar world, [59].
• ——, in the seas off Spitzbergen, [133].
• Melville Bay, enormous glaciers of, [49], [50].
• Melville Island, discovery of, [345].
• Mentschikoff, Prince, his exile and death in Siberia, [205].
• ——, his son restored to the honors of his house, [205].
• Mercy Bay, discovery of, [361].
• Mercy, harbor of, [412].
• Middendorff, Von, his adventures in Taimurland, [220].
• ——, his visit to the Chatanga river, [221].
• ——, his journey down the Taimur river to the Polar Sea, [221–223].
• ——, his return journey and illness, [223–225].
• ——, gratitude of the Samoïedes, [224].
• ——, his observations on the climate and natural productions of Taimurland, [225].
• Midnight, silence of, in Spitzbergen, [135].
• Milk of the reindeer, [36].
• Minerals of Iceland, [88].
• Mink (Vison Americanus), value of the fur of the, [316].
• Misery, Mount, [145].
• Mollusca, small, of the Polar Seas, [59].
• Moonlight nights in the Arctic regions, [32], [33].
• Morse. See [Walrus].
• Morton, one of Dr. Kane’s crew, his illness, [368].
• ——, his discovery of Washington Land, [369].
• Mosquitoes of Nishne-Kolymsk, [235].
• Mosses, dingy, of the “barren grounds,” [18].
• —— of Nova Zembla, [153].
• —— of the Pribilow Islands, [270], [271].
• Mourawieff, Count Nicholas, his annexation of the Amoor, [196].
• Mouse, field, of Spitzbergen, [137].
• Muchamor, the fungus, used as food by the Kamchatkans, [258].
• Mud-springs, boiling, of Iceland, [70].
• Münich, Marshal, his exile to Siberia, [205].
• ——, his return and subsequent life, [206].
• Munk, Jens, his voyages, [343].
• Munkholm, castle of, [124].
• Murderers, treatment of, in Russia, [206].
• Muscovy Company, its endeavors to discover a north-east passage to India, [336].
• Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus), description of the, [40].
• ——, its former and present habitat, [40], [41].
• Musquash, musk-rat, or ondatra (Fiber zibethicus), [317].
• ——, villages, [318].
• ——, modes of catching the animal, [318].
• ——, value of the fur of the, [318].
• Mussels on the coast of Greenland, [59].
• Myvatn, ducks of the, [84].
• N.
• Naddodr, the Norwegian pirate, his discovery of Iceland, [89].
• Námar, or boiling mud-springs of Iceland, [70].
• Narborough, Sir John, his chart of the Strait of Magellan, [414].
• Narwhal, or sea-unicorn, domain of the, [60].
• ——, its tusk, [61].
• ——, Greenland fishery of the, [387].
• Narym, Castrén’s visit to, [175].
• Necromancy of the Samoïedes, [180].
• Nertschinsk, treaty of, [196].
• ——, criminals at the mines of, [206].
• Ness, Castrén’s visit to the Samoïede village of, [172].
• Newfoundland, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, [335].
• ——, its desolate appearance, [376].
• ——, its forests, marshes, and barrens, [376], [377].
• ——, its lakes and ponds, [377], [378].
• ——, its fur-bearing animals, [378].
• ——, its reindeer and wolves, [378].
• ——, its climate and inhabitants, [378].
• ——, its capital, St. John’s, [378], [379].
• ——, history of the island, [379].
• ——, taken possession of by the English, [379].
• ——, right of the French and Americans to fish on the banks of, [379].
• ——, the French town of Placentia, [379].
• ——, the whole island ceded to England, [379].
• ——, importance of the cod-fisheries, [379].
• ——, the great banks of, [380].
• ——, account of the mode of fishing, [380].
• ——, fogs and storms, [380], [381].
• ——, seal-catching, [381].
• Newspapers of Iceland, [110].
• Night of a Polar winter, Kane’s description of, [366].
• Nicolayevsk, station of, built by the Russians, [196].
• Noiba, gold-diggings on the, [216].
• Norfolk Bay, position and fur-trade of, [272].
• North-eastern route to India and China, Sebastian Cabot’s idea of, [335].
• ——, attempts to discover it, [335–337].
• North Pole, the first attempt to sail across the, [342].
• ——, the plan first suggested by Thorne, [342].
• ——, Scoresby’s near approach to the, [344].
• ——, Parry’s boat and sledge journey towards the, [350].
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s opinion as to the practicability of reaching the, across Kennedy Channel, [374].
• North Pole, opinions of other scientific authorities as to the best way to reach, [374].
• North-west passage to India, attempts to discover the, [342], [343].
• ——, M’Clure’s discovery of the, [360].
• —— Company of Canada, formation and trade of the, [307].
• ——, its wars with the Hudson’s Bay Company, and final amalgamation, [308–310].
• Northumberland Sound, temperature of, [28].
• Notothenia, the, of the Antarctic seas, [400].
• Norway, the lemming of the Dovrefjeld, in, [42].
• ——, an absolute monarchy established by Harold Haarfager in, [90].
• ——, causes of the mild climate of the coast of, [121].
• ——, condition of the soil, and of the cultivators of it, [121–123].
• ——, constitution of, and education of the people, [121].
• ——, population of, [121].
• ——, coast scenery of, [123].
• ——, Drontheim and its industry, [124].
• ——, birds of the coast of, [124], [125].
• ——, the herring and cod fisheries of, [125–128].
• Nova Zembla, investigations of the shores of, [147].
• ——, circumnavigated by Pachtussow, [147], [148].
• ——, meteorological observations of Ziwolka, [150].
• ——, the climate of, [151].
• ——, Von Baer’s scientific journey, [151].
• ——, scientific results of his journey, [152], [153].
• ——, vegetation of, [153].
• ——, solitude and silence of, [154].
• ——, rarity of insects in, [154].
• ——, lemmings and foxes of, [154].
• ——, birds of, [154].
• ——, other animals of, [154], [155].
• ——, wintering of the Dutch under Barentz at, [340].
• Novgorod, the Great, subdued by the Czar Ivan I., [191].
• Nowodsikoff, Michael, his discoveries, [201].
• Nudibranchiata, enormous numbers of, in the Polar seas, [59].
• Nullipores on the coast of Greenland, [59].
• Nun, or Jilibeambaertje, the Supreme Being of the Samoïedes, [179].
• O.
• Obdorsk, Castrén’s visit to, [174].
• ——, description of the town, [188].
• ——, the fair at, [189].
• Obi river, importance of, [17].
• ——, barren grounds near the, [22].
• ——, its importance to the Ostiaks, [185].
• ——, Castrén’s journey to the, [174].
• ——, misery caused by the overflow of the, [175].
• ——, inhabitants of the banks of the, [175].
• Ochota river, the, [246].
• Ochotsk, sea of, reached by a party of Cossacks, [195].
• ——, description of the town, [246].
• Olaf Truggeson, King of Norway, sends a missionary to Iceland, [93], [94].
• Olginsk, gold mine of, [218].
• Olonez, number of bears killed for their skins every year in, [212].
• Ommaney, Captain, his search for Franklin, [357].
• ——, his discovery of Franklin’s first winter-quarters, [357].
• Onkilon, or sedentary Tchuktchi, [267].
• ——, their mode of life, [267].
• Oraefa Jökul, height of, [69].
• ——, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, [95].
• Orange Island, visited by Barentz, [339].
• Orc. See [Grampus].
• Osborne, Captain Sherard, his opinion as to the method of reaching the North Pole, [374].
• Ostiaks, their fishing-grounds on the Obi, [175].
• ——, their summer huts and mode of life, [185], [186].
• ——, their poverty, [186].
• ——, their winter huts, [186].
• ——, their attachment to their ancient customs, [186], [187].
• ——, their clans, and princes, or chieftains, [187].
• ——, their excellence as archers, [187].
• ——, their personal appearance, and customs, [188].
• ——, annual tribute levied by Yermak, the robber, on them, [194].
• ——, confirmed by the Czar in the possession of their lands, [199].
• Ostrich, Darwin’s, of Patagonia, [420].
• Ostrownoje, town and fair of, [263–265].
• Otter, the sea-, or kalan (Enhydris lutris), value of the fur of the, [211], [212].
• ——, description of, [211].
• ——, chase of the, in Kamchatka, [258].
• —— hunting of the Aleuts, [273].
• Otter, the fish- (Lutra Canadensis), [317].
• ——, fur of the, [317].
• Owl, its favorite food, [43].
• ——, its winter in the highest latitudes, [43].
• Ox, the, in Iceland, [80].
• Oyster, most northerly limit where found, [126].
• P.
• Pachtussow, his circumnavigation of the southern island of Nova Zembla, [148].
• ——, his second voyage and death, [149], [150].
• Pack-ice, [46].
• ——, its tendency to separate in calm weather, [54].
• Paikoff, his discovery of the Fox Islands, [201].
• Parrots of Patagonia, [420].
• Parry, Lieut. W. E. (afterwards Admiral Sir), his Arctic voyages, [344].
• ——, his second voyage, [348].
• ——, his third voyage, [349].
• ——, abandonment of the “Fury,” [349].
• ——, his boat and sledge journey towards the Pole, [350].
• ——, his subsequent career, [351].
• Parry, Mount, discovery of, [369].
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s journey to, [373], [374].
• ——, Mountains, discovery of the, [403].
• Päsina river, scanty population of the, [220].
• Patagonia, Captain Fitzroy’s survey of, [415].
• ——, the people of, [417], [420].
• ——, difference of climate between the east and west, [417].
• ——, aridity of the east of, [417], [418].
• ——, large rivers of, [418].
• ——, animals of, [418], [419].
• ——, introduction of the horse, [424].
• ——, fashions of the Patagonians, [421].
• ——, their religious ideas, [421].
• ——, their superstitions and astronomical knowledge, [422].
• ——, their division into tribes, [422].
• ——, their huts, [422].
• ——, their trading routes, [423].
• Patagonians, their system of government, and great cacique, [423].
• ——, their arms, amusements, and character, [424].
• Paul, St., climate of the island, [271].
• ——, chase of the sea-bear on the, [313].
• Paul the First, discovery of the Island of, [274].
• Pekan, or woodshock (Martes Canadensis), fur of the, [316].
• Penas, gulf of, glacier at the, [394].
• Penguin, the, of the Antarctic seas, [395].
• ——, its food, [397].
• Penny, Master, his search for Franklin, [357], [358].
• Peruvian current, influence of the, [394].
• Petermann, Dr. Augustus, his view of the route to the Pole, [374].
• Petrel, the giant (Procellaria gigantea), of the Antarctic seas, [394].
• Petropavlosk, its population, [257].
• ——, unsuccessful attack of the English and French on, [256].
• Petschora river, [149].
• Philip’s bay, [409].
• Phipps, Captain (afterwards Lord Mulgrave), his voyage to discover the north-west passage, [344].
• Pipit (Anthus pratensis), the, of Iceland, [81].
• Plachina, Castrén’s residence and study at, [176].
• Plover island, discovery of, [360].
• Plovers of Iceland, [81].
• Poland, the elk of, [39], [40].
• Pole, North, probable condition of the land (if any) at the, [27].
• Popow, Fedor, his discovery of the gold fields of Eastern Siberia, [214].
• Population of Norway, [122].
• Potato, cultivation of, in Norway, [124].
• Pribilow Islands, climate of, [271].
• ——, sea-lions and guillemots of, [271].
• ——, chase of the sea-bear, [274].
• Prontschischtschew, his fruitless endeavors to double the capes of Taimurland, [200].
• ——, death of him and his wife, [20].
• Prussia, East, the elk of, [39], [40].
• Ptarmigan (Lagopus albus), its residence in the highest latitudes in winter, [43].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [137].
• ——, its summer visits to Taimurland, [227].
• —— in the Tundra in summer, [19].
• Pteropods, food for the Greenland whale, [60].
• Puffins of Lovunnen island, [125].
• ——, mode of catching them, [125].
• Punta Arenas, colony of Germans at, [416].
• Pustosersk, visit of Castrén to, [171], [173].
• Pym, Lieut., his sledge journey of search for Franklin, [360].
• R.
• Racoon (Procyon lotor), [315], [378].
• ——, value and trade in the skins of the, [316].
• Rae, Dr., his search for Sir John Richardson, [357].
• ——, his discoveries in the Arctic seas, [357].
• ——, his discovery of the fate of Franklin and his crew, [362].
• Raipass, copper mines at, [128].
• Ranunculus, snow (Ranunculus nivalis), of Nova Zembla, [153].
• Rat, musk-. See [Musquash].
• Ravens of Iceland, [84].
• ——, in Scandinavian mythology, [84], [85].
• ——, superstitions of the Icelanders respecting the, [85].
• Razor-bill, its nests on the most northern rocks, [67].
• Red-knife Indians, their hunting-grounds, [327].
• Red-pole, the, of Spitzbergen, [137].
• Red river colony, destruction of the, [308].
• Red sharks of Iceland, [81].
• Reindeer, its summer and winter quarters in the Arctic regions, [19].
• ——, food found by the, in Spitzbergen, [27].
• ——, its importance to man in the northern regions, [34].
• ——, its formation and adaptation to the circumstances in which it is placed, [34].
• ——, clattering sound of its feet, [34].
• ——, its antlers, [34].
• ——, its young, [35].
• ——, its milk, [36].
• ——, its food and olfactory powers, [36].
• ——, the caribou of North America, [36].
• ——, its geographical range in the Old and New World, [36].
• ——, its love of a cold climate, [36].
• ——, its services to man, [37].
• ——, its enemies, and disorders to which it is liable, [37], [38].
• ——, a nuisance in Iceland, [81].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [137].
• ——, the, pens of the Lapps, [160].
• ——, milking the, [160].
• ——, the, sledges of the Lapps, [161].
• ——, attempt made to acclimatize the, in Scotland, [162].
• ——, ravages of wolves in herds of, [164].
• ——, rich Lapp owners of herds of, [164].
• ——, Lapp mode of killing the, [164].
• ——, its two annual migrations, [237].
• —— hunts of the Jukahires of the Aniuj, [237], [238].
• —— races of the Tchuktchi, [266].
• —— hunting of the Esquimaux, [295].
• ——, the Kutchin Indian mode of pounding the, [333].
• ——, chase of the, in Greenland, [388].
• Rensselaer bay, temperature of, in mid-winter, [19], [20].
• ——, Kane’s winters at, [365], [369].
• Resanow, Jakin, his gold-fields, [214].
• “Rescue,” wreck of the, [440].
• Reykjahlid, boiling mud-caldrons of, [70].
• Reykjavik, mean annual temperature of, [78].
• ——, the present capital of Iceland, [91].
• ——, account of, [99], [100].
• ——, the annual fair of, [100].
• ——, salary of the bishop of, [106].
• ——, schools and library of, [108], [109].
• ——, the Icelandic Literary Society, [110].
• Rhinoceros remains found on the coast of Northern Siberia, [203].
• Richardson, Dr. (afterwards Sir John), his Arctic land voyages, [346], [349].
• ——, dreadful sufferings of the party, [346], [347].
• ——, his search for Sir John Franklin, [356].
• Rivers discharging their waters into the Polar ocean, [17].
• —— of Iceland, [78].
• Rocky Mountains, the wild sheep of the, [41].
• Roebuck, near Lake Baikal, [40].
• Rorquals, or fin-whales, habitat and size of the, [60].
• ——, their food, [60].
• Rosmysslow, his investigations of the shores of Nova Zembla, [147].
• Ross, Capt. (afterwards Sir John), Arctic voyages of, [344].
• Ross, Sir John, his second journey, [351].
• ——, his five years in the Arctic Ocean, [351–354].
• ——, his return home and honors, [354].
• ——, Sir James, his Arctic voyages, [351].
• ——, his search for Franklin, [357].
• ——, his discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean, [402].
• ——, collision between his ships, the “Erebus” and “Terror,” [405], [406].
• ——, his danger between two icebergs, [406].
• Rum, effects of, on an Iceland clergyman, [101].
• Rupert’s Land, held by the Hudson’s Bay Company, [310].
• Russia, character of the coniferæ of, [23], [24].
• ——, the elk of the woods of the northern parts of, [40].
• ——, conquest of, by the Tartars under Baaty Khan, [191].
• ——, liberated from the Tartar yoke by Ivan I., [191].
• ——, advances of, in Siberia, [195].
• ——, annexes the country of the Amoor, [196].
• ——, condition of the natives under the yoke of, [197], [198].
• ——, exiles from, to Siberia, [204–206].
• ——, value of the skins annually imported by, [212], [213].
• ——, life and dwellings in Nishne-Kolymsk, [236].
• ——, first treaty of commerce between England and, [336].
• ——, Company, patent granted to the, to fish off Greenland, [138].
• Russian Fur Company, account of the, and its trade, [272].
• S.
• Sabine, Mount, discovery of, [402].
• Sable, value of the, to the Cossack conquerors of Siberia, [195].
• ——, importance and beauty of the fur of the, [209].
• ——, hunting, [210].
• Sabrina Land, discovery of, [401], [402].
• Sagamen, or historians, of Iceland, [94].
• Sajan Mountains, Castrén’s journey over the, [177].
• Salmon, Alpine (Salmo alpinus), immense numbers of, in Nova Zembla, [155].
• Salmon, shoals of, in the rivers of the Arctic regions, [19].
• ——, abundance of, in Iceland, [87].
• ——, of the Sea of Ochotsk, [246], [247].
• ——, abundance of, in Kamchatka, [255].
• Samoïedes, European, Castrén’s journey among the, [170].
• ——, their drunkenness, [171].
• ——, their impatience of confinement, [171–173].
• ——, their barbarism, [179].
• ——, their Supreme Being, Num, or Jilibeambaertje, [179].
• ——, their recourse to incantations, [180].
• ——, their idols, [180], [181].
• ——, their reverence paid to the dead, [181].
• ——, their mode of taking an oath, [182].
• ——, their personal appearance and habits, [182].
• ——, their wealth in reindeer, [183], [184].
• ——, their entire number in Europe and Asia, [184].
• ——, their traditions of ancient heroes, [184].
• ——, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, [199].
• ——, the companions of Von Middendorff on his journey, [221], [225].
• Sämund Frode, his Icelandic works, [94].
• Sand-bee (Andrena) of Nova Zembla, [154].
• Sand-reed bread used in Iceland, [79].
• Sarmiento, Pedro, his voyage, [414].
• Sawina river, [148].
• Saxifragas, the, of the treeless zone, [20].
• Scalds, or bards, of Iceland, [94].
• Scandinavia, character of the coniferæ of, [22].
• Schalaurow, his journeys on the coast of Siberia, [201].
• Scharostin, his residence at Spitzbergen, [142].
• Schelagskoi, Cape, rounded by Count Michael Staduchin, [197].
• ——, reached by Schalaurow, [201].
• Scoresby, Dr., his visit to Spitzbergen, [132].
• ——, Captain, his near approach to the North Pole, [344].
• ——, his voyage to Greenland, [385], [386].
• Scotia, Nova, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, [335].
• Scurvy in Spitzbergen, [140–142].
• ——, preservative against, [141].
• ——, Lapp mode of preventing the, [166].
• Sea, influence of the, on the severity of the Arctic winter, [27].
• Sea, Antarctic, compared with the Arctic regions, [391].
• ——, absence of vegetation in the, [391].
• ——, causes of the inferiority of the Antarctic climate, [391], [392].
• ——, immensity of the icebergs of the, [392].
• ——, the Peruvian current, [394].
• ——, birds of the coasts, [394].
• ——, cetaceans, [397–399].
• ——, Austral fishes, [400].
• ——, voyages of discovery, [401].
• ——, storms and pack-ice, [404] et seq.
• Seas, Arctic, dangers peculiar to the, [45].
• ——, floating masses of ice, [45], [46].
• ——, ice-blink, [54].
• ——, summer fogs, [54].
• ——, clearness of the atmosphere and apparent nearness of objects, [55].
• ——, phenomena of reflection and refraction of the atmosphere, [55].
• ——, causes which prevent the accumulation of Polar ice, [55–57].
• ——, the animals of the, [40], [43], [44], [59].
• ——, Russian discoveries off the Siberian coast, [201] et seq.
• ——, Von Middendorff’s journey down the Taimur river to the Polar sea, [221].
• ——, Wrangell’s nights on the Polar sea, [239].
• ——, his observations on the Polar sea, [240].
• ——, Matiuschkin’s sledge journey, [241].
• ——, voyages of the English and Dutch, [335] et seq.
• Sea-bear of Bering’s sea, [62].
• Sea-eagles of the coast of Norway, [125].
• Sea-elephant of the Antarctic Ocean. [398], [399].
• Sea-gulls of the coast of Norway, [124], [125].
• Sea-lion of Bering sea, [62].
• —— of the Pribilow Islands, [271].
• Seal-fishing at Spitzbergen, [142].
• —— of Nova Zembla, [155].
• —— hunts of the Esquimaux, [295], [296].
• —— catching at Newfoundland, [381].
• —— hunting on the coasts of Greenland, [384], [446].
• Seals, the, of the Polar seas, [62].
• ——, their uses to man, [62], [446].
• ——, the Antarctic, [399], [400].
• ——, their igloos, [449].
• Sea-otter, value of the skin and former numbers of the, [201], [202].
• Sedger river, romantic scenery of the, [410].
• Semple, Governor, murder of, [308].
• Sertularians on the coasts of Greenland, [59].
• Service-trees in the Arctic regions, [24].
• Shark, basking, on the northern coasts of Iceland, [87].
• ——, its uses to the islanders, [87].
• ——, oil manufactured from its liver, [87].
• ——, the northern (Scymnus microcephalus), abundance of, off Spitzbergen, [137].
• ——, fishery of, on the coast of Greenland, [387].
• Sheep, wild (Ovis montana), of the Rocky Mountains, description of the, [41].
• ——, the, of Iceland, and their enemies, [80].
• ——, mode of sheep-shearing, [80].
• Shetland Islands, New, account of the, [392], [393].
• Shrimps off Spitzbergen, [133].
• Siberia, extent of the treeless zone of, [22].
• ——, character of the coniferæ of, [23], [24].
• ——, the elk of, [39].
• ——, the roebuck and red deer of, [40].
• ——, the argali, or wild sheep of, [41].
• ——, the white dolphin in the rivers of, [61].
• ——, conquest of, by the Cossacks, for the Russians, [193], [194].
• ——, final conquest of, by the Russians, and foundation of Tobolsk, [195] et seq.
• ——, condition of the natives of, under the dominion of Russia, [197], [198].
• ——, scientific expeditions sent to, [200] et seq.
• ——, its past ages, [203].
• ——, its extent and capabilities, [204].
• ——, the exiles sent there, [204–206].
• ——, their condition there, [206].
• ——, condition of the West Siberian peasants, [207], [208].
• ——, resources of the country, [208].
• ——, extremes of heat and cold, [208].
• ——, fur-bearing animals, [209] et seq.
• ——, the gold-fields of Eastern, and the miners, [214–216].
• ——, value of the produce of some of the mines, [217], [218].
• ——, entire value of the produce of gold in 1856 and 1860, [218].
• ——, luxury and extravagance caused by the wealthy gold speculators, [218], [219].
• ——, the gold of the Ural, [219].
• ——, New, lemmings of, [27].
• ——, discovery of the islands of, [201], [202].
• ——, fossil ivory of, [202].
• Sibir, the capital of the Tartars in Siberia, [192].
• ——, taken by Yermak, the robber, for the Czar, [194].
• Simpson, Mr. Thomas, his Arctic land voyage, [355].
• ——, his discoveries, [356].
• ——, assassinated, [356].
• Sirowatsky, his discovery of the Archipelago of New Siberia, [203].
• Skalholt, the ancient capital of Iceland, account of, [98].
• ——, its present condition, [99].
• ——, its meadow lands and scenery, [99].
• Skaptar jökul, [69].
• ——, the great eruption of, in 1783, [95].
• Skates of Lapps, [161].
• Skeidara, Mr. Holland’s journey across the, [111], [112].
• Skjalfandafljot river in Iceland, [78].
• Skogslappar, or Forest Lapps, account of the, [166].
• Sledges of the Lapps, [161].
• ——, the sacred sledge, Hahengau, of the Samoïedes, [180].
• Smith’s Sound, temperature of, [27].
• ——, icebergs formed in, [48].
• ——, discovery of the entrance to, [343], [365].
• “Smoke, valley of,” in Iceland, [70].
• Snorri Sturleson, the Herodotus of the North, account of him and his “Heimskringla,” [94], [95].
• Snow-buntings of the “barren grounds,” [18].
• Snow, its protection of the vegetation of the Arctic regions, [19].
• ——, warmth caused by, [19].
• ——, no land yet found covered to the water’s edge with eternal snow, [27].
• ——, amount of the fall of, in Taimurland, [225], [226].
• ——, probable diminution of the fall of, advancing towards the pole, [226].
• ——, its protection against cold, [226].
• Socialism among the Dog-rib Indians, [329].
• Solfataras of Iceland and Sicily compared, [88].
• Solovetskoi, convent of, [180].
• Sorcery of the Laplanders, [158].
• ——, of the Samoïedes, [180].
• Spain, salted cod-fish imported into, [129].
• Spasy, produce of the gold mine of, [218].
• Spirits, invisible, of the Samoïedes, [180], [181].
• Spitzbergen, flowers of, [20].
• ——, vast fields of ice in the plateau of, [27].
• ——, food of the reindeer of, [27].
• ——, proofs of a former milder climate in, [29], [30].
• ——, birds of, [43], [44].
• ——, apparent nearness of objects at, in clear weather, [54].
• ——, the walrus of the coast of, [64].
• ——, description of the archipelago of, [131], [132].
• ——, the west coast, [132].
• ——, Scoresby’s ascent of a mountain, and excursion along the coast, [132], [133].
• ——, Magdalena bay, [133–136].
• ——, ice-cliffs and avalanches of ice, [135].
• ——, scientific exploring expeditions sent to, [136].
• ——, flora and fauna of, [136], [137].
• ——, fisheries of, [139].
• ——, coal and drift-wood of, [137], [138].
• ——, history of, [138].
• ——, attempts made to colonize it, [139–141].
• ——, Russian hunters’ mode of wintering at, [142].
• ——, walrus and seal-fishing at, [142].
• ——, discovery of, [340].
• Spout, the, of Newfoundland, [376].
• Springs, hot, of Iceland, [70].
• ——, the Geysir, [71].
• ——, the Strokkr, [72].
• Spruce fir of the Hudson’s Bay territory, [24].
• Squirrel, value of the fur of the, [212].
• Stadolski Island, visit of Pachtussow to, [148].
• Staduchin, Count Michael, his foundation of the town of Nishnei-Kolymsk, [196], [197].
• —— navigates the sea eastward of Cape Schelagskoi, [197].
• Stawinen river, [148].
• Steller, G. W., notice of him, [248].
• ——, his scientific journey to Kamchatka, [248].
• ——, ill-treated by Bering, [250].
• ——, his sufferings on Bering’s Island, [251].
• ——, death of his commander, Bering, [252].
• ——, his return to Kamchatka, [252].
• ——, persecuted by the Siberian authorities, [253].
• ——, his death, [253].
• Stockfish of Iceland, [87].
• Storms on the White Sea, [169].
• —— of the Tundras, [172], [173].
• —— of the Arctic zone, [225], [226].
• —— off Newfoundland, [381].
• —— in the Antarctic ocean, [404], [405].
• ——, the williwaws, or hurricane squalls, of the Strait of Magellan, [412].
• Strogonoff, foundation of the Russian family of, [192], [193].
• Strokkr, description of the, [72].
• Strongbow Indians of the Rocky Mountains, the, [327].
• Sukkertoppen, seen by Davis, [337].
• Sulphur of Iceland, [88].
• ——, compared with that of Sicily, [88].
• Summer, the perpetual daylight of, [36].
• ——, fogs of, [54].
• —— in Taimurland, [225].
• Sun, the midnight, effect of, on icebergs, [50–52].
• Sunset, magnificence of a, [32].
• Surgut, Castrén’s visit to, [175].
• Surts-hellir, or caves of Surtur, description of, [77].
• Suslik, the, of Siberia, [212].
• ——, value of its fur, [212].
• Sviatoinoss, Cape, fossil ivory at, [202].
• Sviatoi-noss, doubled by the Russians, [200].
• Swans of Iceland, [81], [84].
• T.
• Tabin, the imaginary Cape, of the Dutch navigators, [339].
• Tadibes, or sorcerers of the Samoïedes, [180].
• ——, their dress and incantations, [180].
• Tagilsk, Nishne, the gold-producing town of, [219].
• Taiga, melancholy character of the, [230].
• ——, gold-fields of the, [213].
• Taimur Lake, visited by Lieut. Laptew, [200].
• ——, storm on the, [223].
• Taimur river, visited by Lieut. Laptew, [200].
• ——, Von Middendorff’s journey to the, [221–223].
• Taimurland, endeavors of Prontschischtschew to double the capes of, [200].
• ——, Middendorff’s adventures in, [220], [221].
• ——, his observations on the climate and natural productions of, [225].
• ——, amount of the fall of snow in, [225], [226].
• Tana river, discovery of the, by Jelissei Busa, [195].
• Tarn Mount, Darwin’s ascent of, [411].
• Tartars, their subjection of the Russians, [191].
• —— driven out by Ivan I., [191].
• —— permanently overthrown by Ivan II., [192].
• Tattooing, Cree Indian mode of, [323].
• Tchendoma, the, visited by Jelissei Busa, [195].
• Tchuktchi, barren grounds in the land of the, [21], [22].
• ——, the land of the, [262].
• ——, pipes of, [264].
• ——, their short summer, [262].
• ——, their independence and commercial enterprise, [263].
• —— ladies, Matiuschkin’s visit to some, [265].
• ——, amusements of the people, [266].
• ——, the wandering and sedentary, [267].
• ——, their mode of life, [267].
• ——, population of the land of the, [267].
• Tea-parties at Nishne-Kolymsk, [238].
• Temperature of Rensselaer bay in mid-winter, [19], [20].
• ——, effect of the sea on, of the Arctic regions, [27].
• Temperature, influence of the winds on, [27].
• ——, former milder, of the Arctic regions, [29].
• ——, probable causes of the changes in the Arctic climate, [29].
• ——, the lowest ever felt by man, [28].
• ——, how man is enabled to bear extraordinary low, [28].
• —— of Iceland at different places, [78].
• Tennyson’s Monument, Dr. Kane’s description of, [367].
• Terror, Mount, [403].
• Terski Lapps, Castrén’s attempted journey to the, [170].
• Thangbrand, Christian missionary to Iceland, [93], [94].
• Thingvalla, plain of, [76].
• ——, site of the ancient Icelandic Althing at, [91], [92].
• ——, pastor of, [104].
• ——, church of, [105].
• Thingvalla Lake, in Iceland, [92].
• Thiorsa river, in Iceland, [78].
• Thorlakson, Jon, the poet of Iceland, account of him and his works, [107].
• Thorne, Robert, his suggestion for sailing across the North Pole, [342].
• Thorwald the traveller, the first Christian Icelander, his career, [92], [93].
• Tides, effect of the, in preventing the accumulation of Polar ice, [57].
• Tinné Indians, defeated by the Crees, [319].
• ——, their retaliation, [320].
• ——, their wars with the Blackfeet, [320].
• ——, their wigwams, or tents, [324].
• ——, various tribes of the, and their range, [327].
• ——, their appearance, manners, and customs, [327–329].
• ——, improvements in their condition, [329], [330].
• ——, their wives and children, [330].
• ——, their cruelty to the aged, [330].
• Tjumen, the first settlement of Russians in Siberia, [195].
• ——, Steller’s grave at, [253].
• Tobacco, fondness of the Lapps for, [165], [167].
• ——, eagerness of the wild tribes of the North for, [264].
• Tobolsk, battle of, [193], [195].
• ——, foundation of the city of, [195].
• ——, condition of the southern part, [207], [208].
• Tolstoi Ness, Castrén’s visit to, [177].
• Tolstych, Adrian, his discoveries, [201].
• Tomsk, criminals of, [206], [207].
• Tornea, reindeer gloves of, [37].
• Torsteinson Jon, the martyr of the Westman Islands, [118].
• Tookoolito, [442], [466].
• Train-oil of Tromsö, [128].
• Transbaikalia, Castrén’s visit to, [177].
• Travelling in Iceland, [110], [111].
• Treeless zone of Europe, Asia, and America, [18–22].
• Treurenberg bay, deer of, [137].
• Trölladyngja, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, [95].
• Tromsö, cod-fishery and cod-liver oil of, [128].
• ——, description of the town and island, [128].
• Tschirigow, his voyages, [201].
• Tucutuco (Ctenomys Magellanica), the, of Patagonia, [419].
• Tundri, or barren grounds of the Arctic regions, [18], [19].
• —— of the European Samoïedes, [171].
• Tundri, storms of the Tundras, [172].
• Tung-ower, or hot spring at Reikholt, in Iceland, [70].
• Tungusi, the, their relationship to the Mantchou, [244].
• ——, their conquests and final subjugation by the Russians, [244].
• ——, their intellectual development, [244].
• ——, their tribes and population, [244].
• ——, their wretchedness, [244].
• ——, their manners and customs, [245].
• Tunguska river, gold-fields of the Upper, [214].
• Turkey-buzzard, the, of Patagonia, [419].
• Turuchansk, Castrén’s visits to, [176], [177].
• Tyndall glacier, enormous size of, [50].
• U.
• Uffliot the Wise, his first code of laws in Iceland, [91].
• Unalaschka, climate of, [269].
• ——, vegetation of, [269], [270].
• ——, people of, [273].
• Union, Cape, Dr. Hayes’s sledge voyage to, [373], [374].
• United States, right of, to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, [379].
• Ural Mountains, Castrén’s passage of the, [174].
• ——, first discovery of gold in the, [214].
• ——, quantity of gold found in the, [219].
• Ustsylmsk, Castrén’s visit to, and ill-treatment at, [173], [174].
• Utzjoki, the pastor of, [169].
• Uusa river, Castrén’s journey up the, [174].
• V.
• Vaage, cod-fishery of, [126].
• ——, ancient importance of, [126].
• Vancouver’s Island, placed under the management of the Hudson’s Bay Company, [310].
• Vapor baths of the Cree Indians, [324].
• Väre, the, of Norway, [124].
• Vegetation, protection afforded by snow to, [19].
• ——, distinctive characters of the Arctic forests, [22–24].
• —— of the “barren grounds,” [18], [21], [22].
• ——, length of time necessary for the formation of even small stems of trees in the Arctic regions, [25].
• ——, harmless character of the Arctic plants, [25].
• ——, no land yet discovered in which it is entirely subdued by winter, [27].
• ——, former, of the northern regions of the globe, [29].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [136].
• —— of Nova Zembla, [152].
• —— of Taimurland, [226].
• —— of Kamchatka, [254].
• —— of the Bay of Awatscha, [256].
• —— of the Pribilow Islands, [271].
• —— of Newfoundland, [376].
• —— of Greenland, [388].
• ——, absence of, in the Antarctic regions, [391].
• —— of Port Famine, [410].
• Verchnei Ostrog, in Kamchatka, built, [198].
• Verazzani, his voyages, [335].
• Vestfjord, cod-fishery of the, [126].
• Victoria Land, discovery of, [402].
• Videy, eider-ducks of, [81], [82].
• Vigr, eider-ducks of, [83].
• ——, Mr. Shepherd’s visit to, [83], [84].
• Vikings, their courage and discoveries, [89].
• Virgins, Cape, [409].
• Vogelsang, deer of, [137].
• Volcanic eruptions in Iceland since its colonization, [95].
• Volcanoes giving birth to Iceland, [68].
• ——, those now existing there, [69].
• ——, the Esk, on Jan Meyen, [146].
• ——, of Kamchatka, [256].
• ——, eruption of Mount Erebus, [403].
• Vole, field (Arvicola œconomus), indigenous to Iceland, [80].
• Voyageur, the, of North America, [304].
• ——, his life and character, [304], [305].
• W.
• Walrus, or morse (Trichechus rosmarus), description of the, [62–64].
• ——, its affectionate temper, [64].
• ——, its parental love, [64].
• ——, its chief resorts and food, [64].
• —— fishing at Spitzbergen, [144].
• —— hunted on Bear Island, [144].
• —— of Nova Zembla, [155].
• —— hunting on the coast of Aliaska, [275].
• ——, pieces of skin of, a medium of exchange, [276].
• ——, Esquimaux mode of hunting it, [298].
• Washington Land, discovery of, [369].
• ——, Dr. Hayes’s journey to, [373].
• Wassiljew, his visit to the Lena, [195].
• Waygatz, island of, the sacred island of the Samoïedes [180].
• Weasel, the Siberian (Viverra Siberica), the fur of, [211].
• Weddell, Captain, his Antarctic voyages, [401].
• Welden, his visit to Bear Island, [144].
• Wellington Channel, temperature of, [28].
• ——, discovery of, [345].
• Wenjamin, the Archimandrite, [170].
• Western, Thomas, preaches Christianity to the Lapps, [156].
• Westman Islands, description of the, [114].
• ——, difficulty of access of the, [114].
• ——, how they became colonized, [115].
• ——, Heimaey, or Home Island, [116].
• ——, food and trade of the people, [117].
• ——, population and mortality of the children, [118].
• ——, their sufferings from pirates, [118], [119].
• Weymouth, his voyage to Hudson’s Bay, [341].
• Whale, the Greenland (Balæna mysticetus), or smooth-back, [60].
• —— off Nova Zembla, [155].
• ——, the white, or beluga, [61].
• ——, the “ca’ing,” [62].
• ——, a stranded, at Spitzbergen, [133].
• ——, the fin-back, [59], [60].
• —— of Spitzbergen, [137].
• —— off Nova Zembla, [155].
• ——, smooth-backed, of the Antarctic seas, [397].
• ——, sperm, of the Antarctic Ocean, [398].
• Whalers, their dangers, in the Arctic seas, [48].
• ——, depressing effect of the summer fogs, [54].
• ——, their operations in the Polar seas, [59].
• ——, whale chases of the Aleuts, [275].
• ——, whale-hunts of the Esquimaux, [295].
• ——, abundance of whales in the Antarctic seas, [397].
• ——, battle between a whale and a grampus, [398].
• Whale Sound, enormous glaciers of, [50].
• White-fish, or Coregonus, of North America, [310], [311].
• White Sea, Castrén’s journey to the, [170].
• ——, Chancellor’s discovery of the passage from England to the, [192].
• ——, an English expedition in the, [336].
• Whymper, Frederick, travels in Alaska, [277–289].
• Wilkes, Captain, his discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean, [402].
• Wilkes’s Land, discovery of, [402].
• Williwaws of the Strait of Magellan, [412].
• Willoughby, Sir Hugh, his voyage and death, [336].
• Willow, polar (Salix polaris), of Nova Zembla, [153].
• ——, dwarf, of the treeless zone, [21].
• ——, dwarf, on the shores of the rivers and lakes, [24].
• Wind-hole Strait of the Dutch navigators, [339].
• Winds, effects of the cold sea-winds on vegetation, [22].
• ——, influence of the, on an Arctic climate, [27].
• Winter Harbor, Parry’s winter in, [345].
• Winteria aromatica, the, [410].
• Witchcraft and witches of the Laplanders, [158].
• Wolf, its attack of the reindeer, [37], [38].
• ——, Lapp mode of hunting the, [164].
• —— in Newfoundland, [378].
• Wolverine. See [Glutton].
• ——, fur of the, [316].
• Wood, length of time necessary for the formation of, in the Arctic regions, [25].
• Woman, dying, abandoned, [462].
• Wrangell, Lieut. von, his services as an Arctic explorer, [233].
• Wrangell, his journey to the shores of the Polar sea, [234].
• ——, his winters at Kolymsk, [238].
• ——, his night on the Polar sea, [239].
• ——, his danger, and return to St. Petersburg, [241–243].
• Wrestling for a wife among the Tinné Indians, [330];
• and among the Kutchin Indians, [332].
• Y.
• Yenisei river, importance of, [17].
• Yermak Timodajeff, the Cossack robber, [192].
• ——, his conquest of Siberia and death, [194].
• ——, his monument in Tobolsk, [194], [195].
• York roads, beauty of, [412].
• Yukon river, [278–289].
• ——, ice in, [283].
• Yukon, fort, [284].
• Z.
• Zembla, Nova, vast ice-fields of, [27].
• ——, mean temperature of, in summer and winter, [27].
• ——, the narwhal of the seas of, [60].
• ——, the walruses of the coasts of, [64].
• Zinzendorf, Count, his interest in Greenland, [384].
• Ziwolka, the Russian steersman, his voyages, [149], [150].
• ——, his meteorological observations, [150].

THE END.

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