Land as a force.—Land represents a combination of natural energies and properties so important as to be named sometimes as a distinct force in production. It implies, first, needed space for various kinds of exertion in both country and town. Second, it includes all mineral, vegetable and animal bodies that are found above, on or under the surface. Third, it is soil, an essential part of a farmer's equipment in using nature's processes of growth.
As most of these properties of land can be put to use only by repeated and continued exertion in the same place, a large portion of the earth is necessarily apportioned to individual control, i. e., to the ownership of those who can direct its uses, and so it becomes wealth. The sea in most of its uses to men requires no such local control, and so is not owned by a nation even; [pg 030] but the harbors, ships and wharves, the oyster-beds and fishing banks, soon become the property of some body of men that will make and keep them useful. Even a pathway over the high seas may yet be controlled for the safety of the huge steamers that dash across.
Land, except when used for absolutely universal welfare, must be under individual control, and even then other individuals may have the right of way because of its necessity in the common use. Peculiarities of property in land arising from limitations in quantity or quality will be spoken of under Scarcity Prices and Rent. They differ from similar questions as to any other form of property only because this form of property seems more permanent. Any force of nature brought under control by individual effort contributes to wealth of individuals till all gain equal control. Peculiarities of climate affect the quality of wool, cotton, grains and fruit, and even the beef and mutton raised under it. But these effects we connect with the land. Such peculiarities also affect manufactures of various kinds, and so location has value.
Effort for gain.—Voluntary human effort is always made with the expectation of gain from its exertion; otherwise it would not be made. As Guizot says, “Our ideal is to procure the maximum of utility with the minimum of effort.” The exertion is always counted in the cost of any product, whatever the natural forces employed. If the crop fails, or the product is unsalable, the effort has lost its expected reward, and prospective losses are estimated with more or less care [pg 031] in judging whether a product is worth the exertion. The half crop of a droughty year costs as much as the full crop of a plenteous year, and compensation for the loss is expected from the surplus of the full crop.
In estimating the exertion given, all human energies are counted, whether they belong to the present, like muscular power, good eyesight, quick intelligence; or to the past, like dexterity from training, superior knowledge, accumulated tools, established character. If the immediate exertion is most prominent, the word labor includes the whole exertion. If tools and machinery are used, capital is a contributor to the product and takes its share. If skill or knowledge or character become important, personal attainments are a chief cause of the product, and so a chief claimant in the reward.
Chapter III. Labor Defined And Classified.
Labor defined.—Exertion of any kind for meeting individual wants we call labor, whether it simply gathers food from the forest, or contrives the most intricate machinery for satisfying wants that may take years to grow. Exertion that has no end beyond itself, no matter how severe it may be, we call play, and consider it important in public welfare only as it aids in health and morals. Labor is separated, too, from all exertions to destroy or injure the welfare of others, if we can see their object. Any person claiming to labor professes to have given his exertions for the satisfaction of somebody's wants without doing violence to the welfare of others in the community. Whenever we do not assume this we concede a state of war, violence and destruction taking the place of production and accumulation. These may require exertions usually classed with labor; but are punished instead of being rewarded, unless we can establish their final advantage in a larger welfare for humanity, or in defense of society.
Productive labor.—The various classifications of labor serve merely to call attention to peculiar relations implied in the results. If exertion results in giving additional wealth, or power to produce wealth, it is called [pg 033] productive labor; but if it contributes only to immediate comfort or pleasure or safety it is called unproductive. The distinction is useful so far as it enables us to be prudent in adjusting energies to meet real wants. All labor is maintained by the product of exertions. Any labor expended without a product must be provided for by an increased product from some other form of labor. A farmer may sustain life upon the food he raises; but the wife who makes his house a home cannot live on the product of her labors. She may add to the value of some products directly, as in turning milk into butter, and raw materials into palatable food; but her chief energy may be in getting satisfaction for the household out of materials gained by her husband. Both are essential to the welfare of either, and prudence requires a proper adjustment between them. A force of physicians may be needed to keep a community in working condition; but if a whole community tried to live as doctors some other community must furnish the material wealth to sustain them.