[20] One drachma of gold to a centumpondium would be (if we assume these were Roman weights) 3 ozs. 1 dwt. Troy per short ton. One-half uncia of silver would be 12 ozs. 3 dwts. per short ton.
[Pg 390][21] For discussion of these fluxes see note page [232].
[22] Carni. Probably the people of modern Austrian Carniola, which lies south of Styria and west of Croatia.
[23] Historical Note on Smelting Lead and Silver.—The history of lead and silver smelting is by no means a sequent array of exact facts. With one possible exception, lead does not appear upon the historical horizon until long after silver, and yet their metallurgy is so inextricably mixed that neither can be considered wholly by itself. As silver does not occur native in any such quantities as would have supplied the amounts possessed by the Ancients, we must, therefore, assume its reduction by either (1) intricate chemical processes, (2) amalgamation, (3) reduction with copper, (4) reduction with lead. It is impossible to conceive of the first with the ancient knowledge of chemistry; the second (see [note 12, p. 297]) does not appear to have been known until after Roman times; in any event, quicksilver appears only at about 400 B.C. The third was impossible, as the parting of silver from copper without lead involves metallurgy only possible during the last century. Therefore, one is driven to the conclusion that the fourth case obtained, and that the lead must have been known practically contemporaneously with silver. There is a leaden figure exhibited in the British Museum among the articles recovered from the Temple of Osiris at Abydos, and considered to be of the Archaic period—prior to 3800 B.C. The earliest known Egyptian silver appears to be a necklace of beads, supposed to be of the XII. Dynasty (2400 B.C.), which is described in the 17th Memoir, Egyptian Exploration Fund (London, 1898, p. 22). With this exception of the above-mentioned lead specimen, silver articles antedate positive evidence of lead by nearly a millennium, and if we assume lead as a necessary factor in silver production, we must conclude it was known long prior to any direct (except the above solitary possibility) evidence of lead itself. Further, if we are to conclude its necessary association with silver, we must assume a knowledge of cupellation for the parting of the two metals. Lead is mentioned in 1500 B.C. [Pg 391]among the spoil captured by Thotmes III. Leaden objects have frequently been found in Egyptian tombs as early as Rameses III. (1200 B.C.). The statement is made by Pulsifer (Notes for a History of Lead, New York 1888, p. 146) that Egyptian pottery was glazed with lead. We have been unable to find any confirmation of this. It may be noted, incidentally, that lead is not included in the metals of the "Tribute of Yü" in the Shoo King (The Chinese Classics, 2500 B.C.?), although silver is so included.
After 1200 or 1300 B.C. evidences of the use of lead become frequent. Moses (Numbers XXXI, 22-23) directs the Israelites with regard to their plunder from the Midianites (1300 B.C.): "Only the gold and the silver, the brass [sic], the iron, the tin, and the lead. Everything that may abide the fire, ye shall make it go through the fire, and it shall be clean; nevertheless, it shall be purified with the water of separation, and all that abideth not the fire ye shall make go through the water." Numerous other references occur in the Scriptures (Psalms XII, 6; Proverbs XVII, 3; XXV, 4; etc.), one of the most pointed from a metallurgical point of view being that of Jeremiah (600 B.C.), who says (VI, 29-30): "The bellows are burned, the lead is consumed of the fire; the founder melteth in vain; for the wicked are not plucked away. Reprobate silver shall men call them because the Lord hath rejected them." From the number of his metaphors in metallurgical terms we may well conclude that Jeremiah was of considerable metallurgical experience, which may account for his critical tenor of mind. These Biblical references all point to a knowledge of separating silver and lead. Homer mentions lead (Iliad XXIV, 109), and it has been found in the remains of ancient Troy and Mycenae (H. Schliemann, "Troy and its Remains," London, 1875, and "Mycenae," New York, 1877). Both Herodotus (I, 186) and Diodorus (II, 1) speak of the lead used to fix iron clamps in the stone bridge of Nitocris (600 B.C.) at Babylon.
Our best evidence of ancient lead-silver metallurgy is the result of the studies at Mt. Laurion by Edouard Ardaillon (Mines du Laurion dans l'Antiquité, Paris, 1897). Here the very extensive old workings and the slag heaps testify to the greatest activity. The re-opening of the mines in recent years by a French Company has well demonstrated their technical character, and the frequent mention in Greek History easily determines their date. These deposits of argentiferous galena were extensively worked before 500 B.C. and while the evidence of concentration methods is ample, there is but little remaining of the ancient smelters. Enough, however, remains to demonstrate that the galena was smelted in small furnaces at low heat, with forced draught, and that it was subsequently cupelled. In order to reduce the sulphides the ancient smelters apparently depended upon partial roasting in the furnace at a preliminary period in reduction, or else upon the ferruginous character of the ore, or upon both. See notes p. [27] and p. [265]. Theognis (6th century B.C.) and Hippocrates (5th century B.C.) are frequently referred to as mentioning the refining of gold with lead; an inspection of the passages fails to corroborate the importance which has been laid upon them. Among literary evidences upon lead metallurgy of later date, Theophrastus (300 B.C.) describes the making of white-lead with lead plates and vinegar. Diodorus Siculus (1st century B.C.), in his well-known quotation from Agatharchides (2nd century B.C.) with regard to gold mining and treatment in Egypt, describes the refining of gold with lead. (See [note 8, p. 279].) Strabo (63 B.C.-24 A.D.) says (III, 2, 8): "The furnaces for [Pg 392]silver are constructed lofty in order that the vapour, which is dense and pestilent, may be raised and carried off." And again (III, 2, 10), in quoting from Polybius (204-125 B.C.): "Polybius, speaking of the silver mines of New Carthage, tells us that they are extremely large, distant from the city about 20 stadia, and occupy a circuit of 400 stadia; that there are 40,000 men regularly engaged in them, and that they yield daily to the Roman people (a revenue of) 25,000 drachmae. The rest of the process I pass over, as it is too long; but as for the silver ore collected, he tells us that it is broken up and sifted through sieves over water; that what remains is to be again broken, and the water having been strained off it is to be sifted and broken a third time. The dregs which remain after the fifth time are to be melted, and the lead being poured off, the silver is obtained pure. These silver mines still exist; however, they are no longer the property of the State, neither these nor those elsewhere, but are possessed by private individuals. The gold mines, on the contrary, nearly all belong to the State. Both at Castlon and other places there are singular lead mines worked. They contain a small proportion of silver, but not sufficient to pay for the expense of refining" (Hamilton's Trans.). Dioscorides (1st century A.D.), among his medicines, describes several varieties of litharge, their origin, and the manner of making white-lead (see on pp. [465], [440]), but he gives no very tangible information on lead smelting. Pliny, at the same period in speaking of silver, (XXXIII, 31), says: "After this we speak of silver, the next folly. Silver is only found in shafts, there being no indications like shining particles as in the case of gold. This earth is sometimes red, sometimes of an ashy colour. It is impossible to melt it except with lead ore (vena plumbi), called galena, which is generally found next to silver veins. And this the same agency of fire separates part into lead, which floats on the silver like oil on water." (We have transferred lead and silver in this last sentence, otherwise it means nothing.) Also (XXXIV, 47) he says: "There are two different sources of lead, it being smelted from its own ore, whence it comes without the admixture of any other substance, or else from an ore which contains it in common with silver. The metal, which flows liquid at the first melting in the furnace, is called stannum that at the second melting is silver; that which remains in the furnace is galena, which is added to a third part of the ore. This being again melted, produces lead with a deduction of two-ninths." We have, despite some grammatical objections, rendered this passage quite differently from other translators, none of whom have apparently had any knowledge of metallurgy; and we will not, therefore, take the several pages of space necessary to refute their extraordinary and unnecessary hypotheses. From a metallurgical point of view, two facts must be kept in mind,—first, that galena in this instance was the same substance as molybdaena, and they were both either a variety of litharge or of lead carbonates; second, that the stannum of the Ancients was silver-lead alloy. Therefore, the metallurgy of this paragraph becomes a simple melting of an argentiferous lead ore, its subsequent cupellation, with a return of the litharge to the furnace. Pliny goes into considerable detail as to varieties of litharge, for further notes upon which see p. [466]. The Romans were most active lead-silver miners, not only in Spain, but also in Britain. There are scores of lead pigs of the Roman era in various English museums, many marked "ex argent." Bruce (The Roman Wall, London, 1852, p. 432) describes some Roman lead furnaces in Cumberland where the draught was secured by driving a tapering tunnel into the hills. The Roman lead slag ran high in metal, and formed a basis for quite an industry in England in the early 18th century (Hunt, British Mining, London, 1887, p. 26, etc.). There is nothing in mediæval literature which carries us further with lead metallurgy than the knowledge displayed by Pliny, until we arrive at Agricola's period. The history of cupellation is specially dealt with in note on p. [465].
[Pg 394][25] Cadmia. In the German Translation this is given as kobelt. It would be of uncertain character, but no doubt partially furnace calamine. (See note on p. [112].)
[26] Pompholyx. (Interpretatio gives the German as Weisser hütten rauch als ober dem garherde und ober dem kupfer ofen). This was the impure protoxide of zinc deposited in the furnace outlets, and is modern "tutty." The ancient products, no doubt, contained arsenical oxides as well. It was well known to the Ancients, and used extensively for medicinal purposes, they dividing it into two species—pompholyx and spodos. The first adequate description is by Dioscorides (V, 46): "Pompholyx differs from spodos in species, not in genus. For spodos is blacker, and is often heavier, full of straws and hairs, like the refuse that is swept from the floors of copper smelters. But pompholyx is fatty, unctuous, white and light enough to fly in the air. Of this there are two kinds—the one inclines to sky blue and is unctuous; the other is exceedingly white, and is extremely light. White pompholyx is made every time that the artificer, in the preparation and perfecting of copper (brass?) sprinkles powdered cadmia upon it to make it more perfect, for the soot which rises being very fine becomes pompholyx. Other pompholyx is made, not only in working copper (brass?), but is also made from cadmia by continually blowing with bellows. The manner of doing it is as follows:—The furnace is constructed in a two-storied building, and there is a medium-sized aperture opening to the upper chamber; the building wall nearest the furnace is pierced with a small opening to admit the nozzle of the bellows. The building must have a fair-sized door for the artificer to pass in and out. Another small building must adjoin this, in which are the bellows and the man who works them. Then the charcoal in the furnace is lighted, and the artificer continually throws broken bits of cadmia from the place above the furnace, whilst his assistant, who is below, throws in charcoals, until all of the cadmia inside is consumed. By this means the finest and lightest part of the [Pg 396]stuff flies up with the smoke to the upper chamber, and adheres to the walls of the roof. The substance which is thus formed has at first the appearance of bubbles on water, afterward increasing in size, it looks like skeins of wool. The heaviest parts settle in the bottom, while some fall over and around the furnaces, and some lie on the floor of the building. This latter part is considered inferior, as it contains a lot of earth and becomes full of dirt."
Pliny (XXXIV, 33) appears somewhat confused as to the difference between the two species: "That which is called pompholyx and spodos is found in the copper-smelting furnaces, the difference between them being that pompholyx is separated by washing, while spodos is not washed. Some have called that which is white and very light pompholyx, and it is the soot of copper and cadmia; whereas spodos is darker and heavier. It is scraped from the walls of the furnace, and is mixed with particles of metal, and sometimes with charcoal." (XXXIV, 34.) "The Cyprian spodos is the best. It is formed by fusing cadmia with copper ore. This being the lightest part of the metal, it flies up in the fumes from the furnace, and adheres to the roof, being distinguished from the soot by its whiteness. That which is less white is immature from the furnace, and it is this which some call 'pompholyx.'" Agricola (De Natura Fossilium, p. 350) traverses much the same ground as the authors previously quoted, and especially recommends the pompholyx produced when making brass by melting alternate layers of copper and calamine (cadmia fossilis).
[27] Oleo, ex fece vini sicca confecto. This oil, made from argol, is probably the same substance mentioned a few lines further on as "wine," distilled by heating argol in a retort. Still further on, salt made from argol is mentioned. It must be borne in mind that this argol was crude tartrates from wine vats, and probably contained a good deal of organic matter. Heating argol sufficiently would form potash, but that the distillation product could be anything effective it is difficult to see.