If the axis of the earth pointed toward Arcturus instead of Polaris, would the seasons be any different from what they are now?
49. The atmosphere.—Although we live upon its surface, we are not outside the earth, but at the bottom of a sea of air which forms the earth's outermost layer and extends above our heads to a height of many miles. The study of most of the phenomena of the atmosphere belongs to that branch of physics called meteorology, but there are a few matters which fairly come within our consideration of the earth as a planet. We can not see the stars save as we look through this atmosphere, and the light which comes through it is bent and oftentimes distorted so as to present serious obstacles to any accurate telescopic study of the heavenly bodies. Frequently this disturbance is visible to the naked eye, and the stars are said to twinkle—i. e., to quiver and change color many times per second, solely in consequence of a disturbed condition of the air and not from anything which goes on in the star. This effect is more marked low down in the sky than near the zenith, and it is worth noting that the planets show very little of it because the light they send to the earth comes from a disk of sensible area, while a star, being much smaller and farther from the earth, has its disk reduced practically to a mere point whose light is more easily affected by local disturbances in the atmosphere than is the broader beam which comes from the planets' disk.
50. Refraction.—At all times, whether the stars twinkle or not, their light is bent in its passage through the atmosphere, so that the stars appear to stand higher up in the sky than their true positions. This effect, which the astronomer calls refraction, must be allowed for in observations of the more precise class, although save at low altitudes its amount is a very small fraction of a degree, but near the horizon it is much exaggerated in amount and becomes easily visible to the naked eye by distorting the disks of the sun and moon from circles into ovals with their long diameters horizontal. The refraction lifts both upper and lower edge of the sun, but lifts the lower edge more than the upper, thus shortening the vertical diameter. See [Fig. 27], which shows not only this effect, but also the reflection of the sun from the curved surface of the sea, still further flattening the image. If the surface of the water were flat, the reflected image would have the same shape as the sun's disk, and its altered appearance is sometimes cited as a proof that the earth's surface is curved.
The total amount of the refraction at the horizon is a little more than half a degree, and since the diameters of the sun and moon subtend an angle of about half a degree, we have the remarkable result that in reality the whole disk of either sun or moon is below the horizon at the instant that the lower edge appears to touch the horizon and sunset or moonset begins. The same effect exists at sunrise, and as a consequence the duration of sunshine or of moonshine is on the average about six minutes longer each day than it would be if there were no atmosphere and no refraction. A partial offset to this benefit is found in the fact that the atmosphere absorbs the light of the heavenly bodies, so that stars appear much less bright when near the horizon than when they are higher up in the sky, and by reason of this absorption the setting sun can be looked at with the naked eye without the discomfort which its dazzling luster causes at noon.
51. The twilight.—Another effect of the atmosphere, even more marked than the preceding, is the twilight. As at sunrise the mountain top catches the rays of the coming sun before they reach the lowland, and at sunset it keeps them after they have faded from the regions below, so the particles of dust and vapor, which always float in the atmosphere, catch the sunlight and reflect it to the surface of the earth while the sun is still below the horizon, giving at the beginning and end of day that vague and diffuse light which we call twilight.
Fig. 28.—Twilight phenomena.