BATTLE OF SALAMIS. — RETREAT OF XERXES.
Surprise and terror of the Greeks immediately after the battle of Thermopylæ. — No ulterior plan of defence formed — no new position to be found, capable of defending Attica — the Peloponnesians crowd to fortify the Isthmus of Corinth. — Hopeless situation of the Athenians — no measures yet taken to remove their families from Attica. — The Athenians abandon Attica, removing their families and property to Salamis, Ægina, Trœzen, etc. — Unavoidable hurry and sufferings of the emigrants. — Energy of the Athenians, and unanimity of the leaders — Themistoklês proposes the restoration of Aristeidês from exile. — Numbers and composition of the combined Greek fleet at Salamis. — Xerxes occupies Athens and Attica — the Persian fleet enters the road of Phalêrum. — The Persian army ravage the Phocian townships in their march from Thermopylæ to Attica — pillage of the temple at Abæ. — Persian division detached against the temple of Delphi. — Failure, flight, and ruin of the detachment. — Xerxes with the Peisistratids in Athens — the acropolis holds out — is taken and sacked. — Atoning visit of the Peisistratids to the ruined acropolis. — Xerxes reviews his fleet at Phalêrum — debate about the policy of fighting a naval battle at Salamis — prudent counsel of Queen Artemisia. — Resolution taken by Xerxes to fight at Salamis. — Dissensions among the Greeks in the fleet at Salamis. Resolution taken to remove the fleet to the Isthmus. — Ruinous consequences, if that resolution had been executed. — Themistoklês opposes the resolution, persuades Eurybiadês, and prevails upon him to reopen the debate. — Synod of Grecian chiefs again convened — Themistoklês tries to get the former resolution rescinded — the Peloponnesians adhere to it — angry words. — Menace of Themistoklês to retire with the Athenian squadron, unless a battle were to be fought at Salamis — Eurybiadês takes upon him to adopt this measure. — The Peloponnesian chiefs, silenced for the moment, afterwards refuse obedience. Third synod convened — renewed disputes; the majority opposed to Themistoklês and determined on retreating to the Isthmus. — Desperate stratagem of Themistoklês — he sends a private message across to Xerxes, persuading him to surround the Greek fleet in the night, and thus render retirement impossible. — Impatient haste of Xerxes to prevent any of the Greeks from escaping — his fleet incloses the Greeks during the night. — Aristeidês comes in the night to the Greek fleet from Ægina — informs the chiefs that they are inclosed by the Persians, and that escape has become impossible. — Position of Xerxes — order of the fleets, and plan of attack. — Battle of Salamis — confusion and complete defeat of the Persians. — Distinguished gallantry of Queen Artemisia. — Expectations of the Greeks that the conflict would be renewed — fears of Xerxes for his own personal safety — he sends his fleet away to Asia. — Xerxes resolves to go back himself to Asia — advice and recommendation of Mardonius, who is left behind, as general, to finish the conquest of Greece. — The Greeks pursue the Persian fleet as far as Andros — second stratagem of Themistoklês by secret message to Xerxes. — Themistoklês with the fleet — levying money in the Cyclades. — Xerxes evacuates Attica and returns home by land, with the larger portion of his army. — Retreating march of Xerxes to the Hellespont — sufferings of his troops. He finds the bridge broken, and crosses the strait on shipboard into Asia. — Joy of the Greeks — distribution of honors and prizes. — Honors rendered to Themistoklês.
CHAPTER XLII.
BATTLES OF PLATÆA AND MYKALE. — FINAL REPULSE OF THE PERSIANS.
The Persian fleet, after retiring from Greece, winters at Kymê, and collects in the spring at Samos. — The Greek fleet assembles in the spring at Ægina. — General adherence of the medizing Greeks to Mardonius — revolt of Potidæa — which is besieged in vain by Artabazus. — Mardonius, after wintering in Thessaly, resumes operations in the spring in Bœotia. He consults the Bœotian oracles. — Mardonius sends Alexander of Macedon to Athens, to offer the most honorable terms of peace. — Temptation to Athens to accept this offer — fear of the Lacedæmonians that she would accept it — Lacedæmonian envoys sent to Athens to prevent it. — Resolute reply of the Athenians, and determination to carry on the war, in spite of great present suffering. — Selfish indifference displayed by Sparta and the Peloponnesians towards Athens. — The Spartans, having fortified the Isthmus, leave Attica undefended: Mardonius occupies Athens a second time. — Second migration of the Athenians to Salamis — their bitter disappointment and anger against Sparta for deserting them. — Second offer of Mardonius to the Athenians — again refused — intense resolution which they display. — Remonstrance sent by the Athenians to Sparta — ungenerous slackness of the Spartans. — Large Spartan force collected under Pausanias at the Isthmus. — Mardonius, after ravaging Attica, retires into Bœotia. — Discouragement in the army of Mardonius generally: Thersander of Orchomenus at the banquet: jealousies between Mardonius and Artabazus, the second in command — zeal and eagerness of the Thebans. — Numbers of the Greeks collected under Pausanias. — March of Pausanias over Kithæron into Bœotia. — He is attacked by the Persian cavalry under Masistius, and much harassed — superior efficiency of the Athenians against cavalry — Masistius is slain. — The Greeks quit the protection of the mountain-grounds and take up a position nearer to Platæa, along the Asôpus. — Mardonius alters his position, and posts himself nearly opposite to the Greeks on the other side of the Asôpus. — Unwillingness of both armies to begin the attack — the prophets on both sides discourage first aggression. — Mardonius annoys the Greeks with his cavalry, and cuts off their supplies in the rear. — Impatience of Mardonius — in spite of the reluctance of Artabazus and other officers he determines on a general attack: he tries to show that the prophecies are favorable to him. — His intention communicated to the Athenians in the night by Alexander of Macedon. — Pausanias changes places in the line between the Spartans and Athenians. — Mardonius again attacks them with his cavalry. — In consequence of the annoyance of the Persian cavalry, Pausanias determines to move in the night into the Island. — Confusion of the Grecian army in executing this night-movement. — Refusal of the Spartan lochage Amompharetus to obey the order for the night-march. — Mistrust of Pausanias and the Spartans, exhibited by the Athenians. — Pausanias moves without Amompharetus, who speedily follows him. — Astonishment of Mardonius on discovering that the Greeks had retreated during the night — he pursues and attacks them with disorderly impatience. — Battle of Platæa. — Great personal bravery of the Persians — they are totally defeated, and Mardonius slain. — The Athenians on the left wing defeat the Thebans. — Artabazus, with a large Persian corps, abandons the contest and retires out of Greece — the rest of the Persian army take up their position in the fortified camp. — Small proportion of the armies on each side which really fought. — The Greeks attack and carry the fortified camp. — Loss on both sides. — Funeral obsequies by the Greeks — monuments — dead body of Mardonius — distribution of booty. — Pausanias summons Thebes, requiring the surrender of the leaders — these men give themselves up, and are put to death. — Honors and distinctions among the Greek warriors. — Reverential tribute to Platæa, as the scene of the victory, and to the Platæans: solemnities decreed to be periodically celebrated by the latter, in honor of the slain. — Permanent Grecian confederacy decreed by the victors, to hold meetings at Platæa. — Proceedings of the Grecian fleet: it moves to the rescue of Samos from the Persians. — The Persian fleet abandons Samos and retires to Mykalê in Ionia. — Mistrust of the fidelity of the Ionians entertained by the Persian generals. — The Greeks land to attack the Persians ashore — revelation of the victory of Platæa, gained by their countrymen on the same morning, springs up in their minds before the battle. — Battle of Mykalê — revolt of the Ionians in the Persian camp — complete defeat of the Persians. — Retirement of the defeated Persian army to Sardis. — Reluctance of the Spartans to adopt the continental Ionians into their alliance — proposition to transport them across the Ægean into Western Greece — rejected by the Athenians. — The Grecian fleet sails to the Hellespont: the Spartans return home, but the Athenians remain to attack the Chersonese. — Siege of Sestos — antipathy of the Chersonesites against Artayktês. — Capture of Sestos — crucifixion of Artayktês. — Return of the fleet to Athens.
CHAPTER XLIII.
EVENTS IN SICILY DOWN TO THE EXPULSION OF THE GELONIAN DYNASTY AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF POPULAR GOVERNMENTS THROUGHOUT THE ISLAND.
Agrigentum and Gela superior to Syracuse before 500 B. C. — Phalaris despot of Agrigentum. — Syracuse in 500 B. C. — oligarchical government under the Gamori, or privileged descendants of the original proprietary colonists — the Demos — the Kyllyrii, or Serfs. — Early governments of the Greek cities in Sicily — original oligarchies subverted in many places by despots — attempted colony of the Spartan prince Dorieus. — Kleander despot of Gela, B. C. about 500. — First rise of Gelo and Ænesidêmus in his service. Têlinês, the first marked ancestor of Gelo. — Gelo — in high command among the mercenaries of Hippokratês despot of Gela. — Fate of the Ionic town of Zanklê, afterwards Messina — it is seized by the Samians — conduct of Hippokratês. — Hippokratês is victorious over the Syracusans — takes Kamarina — dies. — Gelo becomes in his place despot of Gela. — Greatness of Gelo — he gets possession of Syracuse, and transfers the seat of his power from Gela to Syracuse. — Conquest of various Sicilian towns by Gelo — he transports the oligarchy to Syracuse and sells the Demos for slaves. — Increased power and population of Syracuse under Gelo — it becomes the first city in Sicily. — Power of Gelo when the envoys from Sparta and Athens came to entreat his aid, B. C. 481. — Plans of Gelo for strengthening Sicilian Hellenism against the barbaric interests in the islands. — Spartan and Athenian envoys apply to Gelo — his answer. — Carthaginian invasion of Sicily, simultaneous with the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. — The Carthaginian army under Hamilkar besiege Himera — battle of Himera — complete victory gained over them by Gelo. — Supremacy of Gelo in Sicily — he grants peace to the Carthaginians. — Conduct of Gelo towards the confederate Greeks who were contending against Xerxes. — Number of prisoners taken at the battle of Himera and distributed among the Carthaginian cities — their prosperity, especially that of Agrigentum. — Death and obsequies of Gelo. — Number of new citizens whom Gelo had introduced at Syracuse. — Hiero, brother and successor of Gelo at Syracuse — jealous of his brother Polyzêlus — harsh as a ruler — quarrel between Hiero of Syracuse and Thêro of Agrigentum — appeased by the poet Simonides. — Severe treatment of the inhabitants of Himera by Thêro. — Power and exploits of Hiero — against the Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians — against Anaxilaus — he founds the city of Ætna — new wholesale transplantation of inhabitants — compliments of Pindar. — Death of Anaxilaus of Rhegium, and of Thêro of Agrigentum. Thrasydæus, son of Thêro, rules Agrigentum and Himera. His cruel government — he is defeated by Hiero and expelled. — Great power of Hiero, after the defeat of Thrasydæus — his death. — Thrasybulus, brother and successor of Hiero — disputes among the members of the Gelonian family. — Cruelties and unpopularity of Thrasybulus — mutiny against him at Syracuse. — Expulsion of Thrasybulus, and extinction of the Gelonian dynasty. — Popular governments established in all the Sicilian cities — confusion and disputes arising out of the number of new citizens and mercenaries domiciliated by the Gelonian princes. — Internal dissensions and combat in Syracuse. — Defeat of the Gelonians — Syracuse made into one popular government, one city, one fortification. — Disorders in other Sicilian cities, arising from the return of exiles who had been dispossessed under the Gelonian dynasty. Katana and Ætna. — General congress and compromise — the exiles are provided for — Kamarina again restored as a separate autonomous city. — Reactionary feelings against the previous despotism, and in favor of popular government, at Syracuse and in the other cities. — Italiot Greeks — destructive defeat of the inhabitants of Tarentum and of Rhegium.