FROM THE BLOCKADE OF POTIDÆA DOWN TO THE END OF THE FIRST YEAR OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.
State of feeling in Greece between the Thirty years’ truce and the Peloponnesian war — recognized probability of war — Athens at that time not encroaching — decree interdicting trade with the Megarians. — Zealous importunity of the Corinthians in bringing about a general war, for the purpose of preserving Potidæa. — Relations of Sparta with her allies — they had a determining vote, whether they would or would not approve of a course of policy which had been previously revived by Sparta separately. — Assembly of the Spartans separately addressed by envoys of the allied powers, complaining that Athens had violated the truce. — The Corinthian envoys address the assembly last, after the envoys of the other allies have inflamed it against Athens. — International customs of the time, as bearing upon the points in dispute between Athens and Corinth. — Athens in the right. — Tenor of the Corinthian address — little allusion to recent wrong — strong efforts to raise hatred and alarm against Athens. — Remarkable picture drawn of Athens by her enemies. — Reply made by an Athenian envoy, accidentally present in Sparta. — His account of the empire of Athens — how it had been acquired, and how it was maintained. — He adjures them not to break the truce, but to adjust all differences by that pacific appeal which the truce provided. — The Spartans exclude strangers, and discuss the point among themselves in the assembly. — Most Spartan speakers are in favor of war. King Archidamus opposes war. His speech. — The speech of Archidamus is ineffectual. Short, but warlike appeal of the Ephor Stheneläidas. — Vote of the Spartan assembly in favor of war. — The Spartans send to Delphi — obtain an encouraging reply. — General congress of allies at Sparta. Second speech of the Corinthian envoys, enforcing the necessity and propriety of war. — Vote of the majority of the allies in favor of war, B.C. 432. — Views and motives of the opposing powers. — The hopes and confidence, on the side of Sparta; the fears, on the side of Athens. Heralds sent from Sparta to Athens with complaints and requisitions meanwhile the preparations for war go on. — Requisitions addressed by Sparta to Athens — demand for the expulsion of the Alkmæonidæ as impious — aimed at Periklês. — Position of Periklês at Athens: bitter hostility of his political opponents: attacks made upon him. — Prosecution of Aspasia. Her character and accomplishments. — Family relations of Periklês — his connection with Aspasia. License of the comic writers in their attacks upon both. — Prosecution of Anaxagoras the philosopher as well as of Aspasia — Anaxagoras retires from Athens — Periklês defends Aspasia before the dikastery, and obtains her acquittal. — Prosecution of the sculptor Pheidias for embezzlement — instituted by the political opponents of Periklês. — Charge of peculation against Periklês himself. — Probability that Periklês was never even tried for peculation, certainly that he was never found guilty of it. — Requisition from the Lacedæmonians, for the banishment of Periklês — arrived when Periklês was thus pressed by his political enemies — rejected. — Counter-requisition sent by the Athenians to Sparta, for expiation of sacrilege. — Fresh requisitions sent from Sparta to Athens — to withdraw the troops from Potidæa — to leave Ægina free — to readmit the Megarians to Athenian harbors. — Final and peremptory requisition of Sparta — public assembly held at Athens on the whole subject of war and peace. — Great difference of opinion in the assembly — important speech of Periklês. — Periklês strenuously urges the Athenians not to yield. — His review of the comparative forces, and probable chances of success or defeat, in the war. — The assembly adopts the recommendation of Periklês — firm and determined reply sent to Sparta. — Views of Thucydidês respecting the grounds, feelings, and projects of the two parties now about to embark in war. — Equivocal period — war not yet proclaimed — first blow struck, not by Athens, but by her enemies. — Open violation of the truce by the Thebans — they surprise Platæa in the night. — The gates of Platæa are opened by an oligarchical party within — a Theban detachment are admitted into the agora at night — at first apparently successful, afterwards overpowered and captured. — Large force intended to arrive from Thebes to support the assailants early in the morning — they are delayed by the rain and the swelling of the Asôpus — they commence hostilities against the Platæan persons and property without the walls. — Parley between the Platæans and the Theban force without — the latter evacuate the territory — the Theban prisoners in Platæa are slain. — Messages from Platæa to Athens — answer. — Grecian feeling, already predisposed to the war, was wound up to the highest pitch by the striking incident at Platæa. — Preparations for war on the part of Athens — intimations sent round to her allies — Akarnanians recently acquired by Athens as allies — recent capture of the Amphilochian Argos by the Athenian Phormio. — Strength and resources of Athens and her allies — military and naval means — treasure. — Ample grounds for the confidence expressed by Periklês in the result. — Position and power of Sparta and the Peloponnesian allies — they are full of hope and confidence of putting down Athens speedily. — Efforts of Sparta to get up a naval force. — Muster of the combined Peloponnesian force at the isthmus of Corinth, under Archidamus, to invade Attica. — Last envoy sent to Athens — he is dismissed without being allowed to enter the town. — March of Archidamus into Attica — his fruitless siege of Œnoê. — Expectation of Archidamus that Athens would yield at the last moment. — Difficulty of Periklês in persuading the Athenians to abandon their territory and see it all ravaged. — Attica deserted — the population flock within the walls of Athens. Hardships, privations, and distress endured. — March of Archidamus into Attica. — Archidamus advances to Acharnæ, within seven miles of Athens. — Intense clamor within the walls of Athens — eagerness to go forth and fight. — Trying position, firmness, and sustained ascendency, of Periklês, in dissuading them from going forth. — The Athenians remain within their walls: partial skirmishes only, no general action. — Athenian fleet is despatched to ravage the coasts of Peloponnesus — first notice of the Spartan Brasidas — operations of the Athenians in Akarnania, Kephallênia, etc. — The Athenians expel the Æginetans from Ægina, and people the island with Athenian kleruchs. The Æginetans settle at Thyrea in Peloponnesus. — The Athenians invade and ravage the Megarid: sufferings of the Megarians. — Measures taken by Athens for permanent defence. — Sum put by in the acropolis, against urgent need, not to be touched unless under certain defined dangers. — Capital punishment against any who should propose otherwise. — Remarks on this decree. — Blockade of Potidæa — Sitalkês king of the Odrysian Thracians — alliance made between him and Athens. — Periklês is chosen orator to deliver the funeral discourse over the citizens slain during the year. — Funeral oration of Periklês. — Sketch of Athenian political constitution, and social life, as conceived by Periklês. — Eulogy upon Athens and the Athenian character. — Mutual tolerance of diversity of tastes and pursuits in Athens. — It is only true partially and in some memorable instances that the state interfered to an exorbitant degree with individual liberty in Greece. — Free play of individual taste and impulse in Athens — importance of this phenomenon in society. — Extraordinary and many-sided activity of Athens. — Peculiar and interesting moment at which the discourse of Periklês was delivered. Athens now at the maximum of her power — declining tendency commences soon afterwards.
CHAPTER XLIX.
FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND YEAR DOWN TO THE END OF THE THIRD YEAR OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.
Barren results of the operations during the first year of war. — Second invasion of Attica by the Peloponnesians — more spreading and ruinous than the first. — Commencement of the pestilence or epidemic at Athens. — Description of the epidemic by Thucydidês — his conception of the duty of exactly observing and recording. — Extensive and terrible suffering of Athens. — Inefficacy of remedies — despair and demoralization of the Athenians. — Lawless recklessness of conduct engendered. — Great loss of life among the citizens — blow to the power of Athens. — Athenian armament sent first against Peloponnesus, next, against Potidæa — it is attacked and ruined by the epidemic. — Irritation of the Athenians under their sufferings and losses — they become incensed against Periklês — his unshaken firmness in defending himself. — Athenian public assembly — last speech of Periklês — his high tone of self-esteem against the public discontent. Powerful effect of his address — new resolution shown for continuing the war — nevertheless, the discontent against Periklês still continues. He is accused and condemned in a fine. — Old age of Periklês — his family misfortunes and suffering. He is reëlected stratêgus — restored to power and to the confidence of the people. — Last moments and death of Periklês. His life and character. — Judgment of Thucydidês respecting Periklês. — Earlier and later political life of Periklês — how far the one differed from the other. — Accusation against Periklês of having corrupted the Athenian people — untrue, and not believed by Thucydidês. — Great progress and improvement of the Athenians under Periklês. — Periklês is not to blame for the Peloponnesian war. — Operations of war languid, under the pressure of the epidemic. — Attack of the Ambrakiots on the Amphilochian Argos: the Athenian Phormio is sent with a squadron to Naupaktus. — Injury done to Athenian commerce by Peloponnesian privateers — The Lacedæmonians put to death all their prisoners taken at sea, even neutrals. — Lacedæmonian envoys seized in their way to Persia and put to death by the Athenians. — Surrender of Potidæa — indulgent capitulation granted by the Athenian generals. — Third year of the war — king Archidamus marches to Platæa — no invasion of Attica. — Remonstrance of the Platæans to Archidamus — his reply — he summons Platæa in vain. — The Platæans resolve to stand out and defy the Lacedæmonian force. — Invocation and excuse of Archidamus on hearing the refusal of the Platæans. — Commencement of the siege of Platæa. — Operations of attack and defence — the besiegers make no progress, and are obliged to resort to blockade. — Wall of circumvallation built round Platæa — the place completely beleaguered and a force left to maintain the blockade. — Athenian armament sent to Potidæa and Chalkidic Thrace — it is defeated and returns. — Operations on the coast of Akarnania. — Joint attack upon Akarnania, by land and sea, concerted between the Ambrakiots and Peloponnesians. — Assemblage of the Ambrakiots, Peloponnesians, and Epirotic allies — divisions of Epirots. — They march to attack the Akarnanian town of Stratus. — Rashness of the Epirots — defeat and repulse of the army. — The Peloponnesian fleet comes from Corinth to Akarnania — movements of the Athenian Phormio to oppose it. — Naval battle between Phormio and the Peloponnesian fleet — his complete victory. — Reflections upon these two defeats of the Peloponnesians. — Indignation of the Lacedæmonians at the late naval defeat: they collect a larger fleet under Knêmus to act against Phormio. — Inferior numbers of Phormio — his manœuvring. — The Peloponnesian fleet forces Phormio to a battle on the line of coast near Naupaktus. Dispositions and harangues on both sides. — Battle near Naupaktus. The Peloponnesian fleet at first successful, but afterwards defeated. — Retirement of the defeated Peloponnesian fleet. — Phormio is reinforced — his operations in Akarnania — he returns to Athens. — Attempt of Knêmus and Brasidas to surprise Peiræus, starting from Corinth. — Alliance of the Athenians with the Odrysian king Sitalkês. — Power of the Odrysians in Thrace — their extensive dominion over the other Thracian tribes. — Sitalkês, at the instigation of Athens, undertakes to attack Perdikkas and the Chalkidians of Thrace. — His vast and multifarious host of Thracians and other barbarians. — He invades and ravages Macedonia and Chalkidikê. — He is forced to retire by the severity of the season and want of Athenian coöperation.
CHAPTER L.
FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE FOURTH YEAR OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR DOWN TO THE REVOLUTIONARY COMMOTIONS AT KORKYRA.
Fourth year of the war — internal suffering at Athens. — Renewed invasion of Attica. — Revolt of Mitylênê and most part of Lesbos from Athens. — Proceedings of Athens — powerful condition of Mitylênê — Athenian fleet sent thither under Kleïppidês. — Kleïppidês fails in surprising Mitylênê — carries on an imperfect blockade. — He receives reinforcements, and presses the siege with greater vigor — want of resolution on the part of the Mitylenæans. — The Mitylenæan envoys address themselves to the Spartans at the Olympic festival, entreating aid. — Tone and topics of their address. — Practical grounds of complaint on the part of the Mitylenæans against Athens few or none. — The Peloponnesians promise assistance to Mitylênê — energetic demonstrations of the Athenians. — Asôpius son of Phormio in Akarnania. — The accumulated treasure of Athens exhausted by her efforts — necessity for her to raise a direct contribution. — Outbreak of the Platæans from their blockaded town. — Their plan of escape — its extraordinary difficulty and danger. Half of the garrison of Platæa escapes to Athens. — Blockade of Mitylênê closely carried on by the Athenian general Pachês — the Mitylenæans are encouraged to hold out by the Lacedæmonians, who send thither Salæthus. — Mitylênê holds out till provisions are exhausted — Salæthus arms all the people of Mitylênê for a general sally — the people refuse to join — the city is surrendered to Athens, at discretion. — The Peloponnesian fleet under Alkidas arrives off the coast of Ionia — astonishment and alarm which its presence creates. — Pachês, after the capture of Mitylênê, pursues the fleet of Alkidas, which returns to Peloponnesus without having done anything. — Pachês at Notium — he captures the place — his perfidy towards Hippias, the leader of the garrison. — Notium recolonized from Athens as a separate town. — Pachês sends to Athens about a thousand Mitylenæan prisoners, the persons chiefly concerned in the late revolt, together with Salæthus. — Important debate in the Athenian assembly upon the treatment of the prisoners. — First mention of Kleon by Thucydidês — new class of politicians to which he belonged. — Eukratês, Kleon, Lysiklês, Hyperbolus, etc. — Character of Kleon. — Indignation of the Athenians against Mitylênê — proposition of Kleon to put to death the whole male population of military age is carried and passed. — Repentance of the Athenians after the decree is passed. A fresh assembly is convened to reconsider the decree. — Account of the second assembly given by Thucydidês — speech of Kleon in support of the resolution already passed. — Remarks on the speech of Kleon. — Speech of Diodotus in opposition to Kleon — second decree mitigating the former. Rapid voyage of the trireme which carries the second decree to Mitylênê — it arrives just in time to prevent the execution of the first. — Those Mitylenæans whom Pachês had sent to Athens are put to death — treatment of Mitylênê by the Athenians. — Enormities committed by Pachês at Mitylênê — his death before the Athenian dikastery. — Surrender of Platæa to the Lacedæmonians. — The Platæan captive garrison are put upon their trial before Lacedæmonian judges. — Speech of the Platæan deputies to these judges on behalf of themselves and their comrades. — Reply of the Thebans. — The Platæans are sentenced to death by the Lacedæmonian judges, and all slain. — Reason of the severity of the Lacedæmonians — cases of Platæa and Mitylênê compared. — Circumstances of Korkyra — the Korkyræan captives are sent back from Corinth, under agreement to effect a revolution in the government and foreign politics of the island. — Their attempts to bring about a revolution — they prosecute the democratical leader Peithias — he prosecutes five of them in revenge — they are found guilty. — They assassinate Peithias and several other senators, and make themselves masters of the government — they decree neutrality — their unavailing mission to Athens. — The oligarchical party at Korkyra attack the people — obstinate battle in the city — victory of the people — arrival of the Athenian admiral Nikostratus. — Moderation of Nikostratus — proceedings of the people towards the vanquished oligarchs. — Arrival of the Lacedæmonian admiral Alkidas, with a fleet of fifty-three triremes. Renewed terror and struggle in the island. — Naval battle off Korkyra between Nikostratus and Alkidas. — Confusion and defenceless state of Korkyra — Alkidas declines to attack it — arrival of the Athenian fleet under Eurymedon — flight of Alkidas. — Vengeance of the victorious Demos in Korkyra against the prostrate oligarchs — fearful bloodshed. — Lawless and ferocious murders — base connivance of Eurymedon. — Band of oligarchical fugitives escape to the mainland — afterwards land again on the island and establish themselves on Mount Istônê. — Political reflections introduced by Thucydidês on occasion of the Korkyræan massacre. — The political enormities of Korkyra were the worst that occurred in the whole war. — How these enormities began and became exaggerated. Conduct of the opposing parties. — Contrast between the bloody character of revolutions at Korkyra and the mild character of analogous phenomena at Athens. — Bad morality of the rich and great men throughout the Grecian cities.