The first mention of Jews in Germany is found in two orders of Emperor Constantine (321), in which he regulated the condition of the Jews of Cologne. It is possible that this settlement was of a temporary character, for nothing is heard of the Jews in Germany until the tenth century. A statement to the effect that Charlemagne called Rabbi Kalonymus of Lucca in Italy to be Chief Rabbi of all the Jews of Germany is first reported in the sixteenth century, and is in all likelihood legendary. Under Charlemagne the Jews appear in Germany only as travelling traders. In 1016, however, there was already a bloody persecution of the Jews in Mayence. Gershom ben Judah, a native of France, was rabbi in Mayence. He occupied so prominent a position that he was called מאור הגולה (light of the exile). He wrote commentaries on various parts of the Talmud, responsa, other Talmudic works, and liturgical poetry. He died in 1028. To him are ascribed various rules, among them a prohibition of polygamy and an injunction to respect the secrecy of letters. At the same time there lived in Mayence Simeon bar Isaac, the liturgical poet, whose hymns are found in the ritual of the German Jews for the second day of Rosh Hashana.
In 1090 Emperor Henry IV granted charters to the Jews of Worms and Speyer. These are the oldest laws regulating the status of the Jews in Germany, granting to them freedom of trade and travel, proclaiming the inviolability of their cemeteries, and prohibiting the kidnapping and baptism of their children. Six years later the first crusade broke out, and the mobs composing the army of the crusaders on the Rhine invaded the Jewish settlements, chiefly Cologne, Mayence, Speyer and Worms, in that part of the country. Houses were sacked, synagogues desecrated, and many Jews cruelly murdered; others committed suicide after killing their own children in order to save them from forced conversions. A number of Jews who had been converted to Christianity, in order to save their lives, later on returned to Judaism in spite of the ecclesiastic law which put this under the penalty of death. The Emperor, who at that time was in Italy, sanctioned this in spite of the protests of the Pope.
Another persecution broke out in 1146, when the second crusade began. But the consequences were not as serious as those of the first crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux strongly condemned all acts of violence toward the Jews, who found refuge in the castles of the lords, and the Bishop of Speyer opened his castle, the Wolkenburg, to them, protecting them from the attacks of the mob. Still, in Wuerzburg, quite a number were killed, under the charge of having murdered a Christian. This may be considered the first blood-accusation on the European continent, although no particular motive for the crime was given. There is, however, a case on record in England in 1144, where the Jews were accused of having murdered a boy, William of Norwich, and nailed him to a cross in order to mock the crucifixion of Jesus.
During the course of the twelfth century, local outbreaks of mob violence occurred everywhere in Europe, notably at Blois, France, in 1171, where thirty-four Jews were burned at the stake. In 1189, on the occasion of the coronation of King Richard Cœur de Lion, a bloody persecution took place in London, and soon spread over the other cities of the kingdom. Notable is the case of Benedict of York, who, in order to save his life, turned to Christianity and returned to Judaism on the next day. Both King Richard and the Archbishop of Canterbury permitted this, although it was against the canonical law.
The climax of the ill-treatment of the Jews was reached in 1215, when the Lateran Council, presided over by Pope Innocent III, passed various laws repeating the usual prohibition against office-holding by Jews, and decreeing that they should wear a distinct mark on their outer garments. This is the origin of the Yellow Badge, which in some countries continued to be in force until the end of the eighteenth century. The Pope stated that the Jews should be like Cain, singled out for their wickedness, and that their treatment should be an object lesson to Christians.
SPIRITUAL LIFE OF THE PERIOD
The spiritual life of the Jews reached its highest development in Spain, where the contact with the cultured Arabs, whose language the Jews spoke, made the works of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientists accessible to them. In the beginning of the eleventh century Bahya ibn Pakuda, a philosopher, wrote “The Duties of the Heart,” perhaps the most popular work of this literature. His ideal of life is asceticism. His contemporary, Solomon ibn Gabirol (born 1022), wrote a philosophical book, “The Fountain of Life,” which, however, is only extant in a Latin translation. He also wrote an ethical treatise, “The Choicest of Pearls,” and some Hebrew poetry. His poems, of which quite a number have found place in the liturgy, are among the best works of their class. Of his secular poems in Hebrew, a wine song is the most famous. About the same time Samuel Hanagid was secretary to the King of Granada. He was not only a patron of Jewish learning but an author of considerable note. He wrote an introduction to the Talmud, and various works which are sequels to Biblical books, such as Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. His son, Joseph, succeeded him, and was killed in a riot in 1060.
The greatest Hebrew poet of mediæval times is Judah Halevi (born about 1080, died 1141). Of his numerous poems, some are of a religious, others of a secular character. Of the latter the best known is a description of a sea voyage; of the former, the Ode to Zion, embodied in the ritual for the ninth of Ab and translated into various modern languages. He also wrote an apology for Judaism, called Kuzari, previously mentioned, which presents its doctrines in the form of dialogues between the King of the Chazars and the rabbi who converted him. In 1140 he went to Palestine to spend the remainder of his days there. He seems to have died before he reached his goal. A younger contemporary is Abraham ibn Ezra (1092-1167). He was born in Spain, and travelled through a great part of Europe and the Orient. Of his numerous works, comprising the fields of poetry, Hebrew grammar, astrology, and other subjects, the most noteworthy is his commentary on the Pentateuch, which makes him rank as the first Biblical critic. He proved by his strong critical arguments that the Pentateuch as we possess it does not come from Moses but was partly the product of later times. His contemporary is Moses ibn Ezra, a very prolific Hebrew poet, whose poems, however, suffer from an excessive play on words. It is not known whether the two Ibn Ezras were relatives.
The most illustrious author of mediæval times is Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides, born at Cordova, 1135; died at Cairo, 1204). His first work was a commentary on the Mishnah, written in Arabic, and translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon. This work was a preparation for the greatest work of his life, the “Mishneh Torah,” in which he presents the whole doctrine and law of Judaism. It is written in clear Hebrew, and, while in the law following the Rabbinic sources, it shows here and there, especially in the dogmatic part, the author’s object to harmonize Judaism with philosophical thought. He is the author of a philosophic work, “The Guide of the Perplexed,” written in Arabic and known by its Hebrew title, Moreh Nebukim. His object of harmonizing religion with philosophy is made manifest in the first part of this work by his attempt to explain the anthropomorphic passages of the Bible. He also explains prophecy as a divine gift and tries to present reasons for the divine laws, showing that they are intended for the instruction and the material and moral elevation of mankind. The book was translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon in the twelfth century, and by Judah Alcharizi in the thirteenth. It was at an early date translated into Latin, and in recent times into various modern languages. Maimonides in addition wrote quite a number of works on scientific subjects, notably on medicine, and various Rabbinic works. He was physician in ordinary to the Sultan.