The history of the Jews

by Gotthard Deutsch

The pious people fled from Jerusalem into the wilderness in order to escape the fulfillment of the king’s orders. Among the leaders of those who were determined rather to die than give up their religion was Mattathiah, an aged priest of the family of the Hasmonæans. In the little town of Modin he killed a Jew who made preparations to offer sacrifice on the heathenish altar, and an officer was sent to execute the king’s decree. This was the signal for rebellion. Mattathiah had five sons of whom Judah, called the Maccabee, was the leader in battle. Judah gathered a small number of the faithful around him and succeeded in defeating various generals and finally the viceroy, Lysias. Then he entered Jerusalem, removed all traces of idolatry from the Temple and rededicated it to the service of God in 165 B.C. Shortly afterwards, in 164 B.C., Antiochus IV died and was succeeded by his son, Antiochus V, still a boy, for whom Lysias governed as regent. The last having many difficulties to contend with, granted the Jews religious freedom. He and the young king, however, were soon killed, and Demetrius I, a nephew of Antiochus IV, came to the throne in 162 B.C.

Demetrius continued to give the Jews religious freedom, but he appointed a high priest named Alkymus, whom the people disliked, and so the rebellion started anew. Judah defeated the general Nikanor in 161 B.C., but a year later he fell in battle and was succeeded by his brother Jonathan. Meantime Syria was torn to pieces amid constant rebellion caused by various claimants to the throne, each of whom tried to win the Jews over to his side in order to obtain a free hand in fighting his rivals. Thus Jonathan was confirmed as high priest by the Syrian king (153 B.C.), but later on, being distrusted, was assassinated by the Syrian governor, Tryphon (143 B.C.) He was succeeded by the last surviving son of Mattathiah, Simon (143-135 B.C.). Simon drove the Syrian garrison from the fort at Jerusalem and was not only confirmed as high priest but also as ruler of the Jews. He manifested his sovereignty by issuing coins bearing his name.

The Romans, who were glad to see the power of the Syrian king weakened, formed an alliance with him, and so Israel was again an independent nation. Simon was assassinated by Ptolemy, his own son-in-law, and was succeeded by his son John Hyrcan (135-105 B.C.), who assumed the title of king and was at the same time the high priest. The Syrian kingdom became altogether dismembered, and John Hyrcan, aided by the Romans, united under his sceptre not only the Jews living in Palestine but also conquered those parts of the country which were inhabited by other nations. The Idumæans and the Samaritans were forcibly converted to Judaism. With the growing power of the new kingdom the religious life of the ruling classes became weakened and the king alienated those people who had formerly been the most zealous supporters of the Maccabæan rebellion. Two parties were formed, one called the Sadducees, after the High Priest Zadok, was in sympathy with the government while the other, the Pharisees, became its opponent. The Pharisees (separatists) believed in freedom only as a means of protection of their religious life, and therefore opposed the king, who wasted the resources of the country in wars of conquest.

Hyrcan was succeeded by Aristobul, his son, with whose reign a period of family feuds and palace intrigues began. He ordered his brother Antigonus to be killed and died soon afterwards, having reigned but one year (105-104 B.C.). His successor was his brother Alexander Jannai (104-78 B.C.). The latter’s highest ambition was to become a conqueror and he carried on constant but unsuccessful warfare with Arabic chieftains, and with the Egyptians and other neighbors. The people rebelled against him, but he quelled all uprisings with extreme cruelty, and on one occasion had six hundred pilgrims massacred in the courtyard of the Temple. The Pharisees were particularly the objects of his hatred.

Upon his death his wife, Salome Alexandra, came to the throne (78-69 B.C.). She made peace with the Pharisees, whose leader Simeon ben Shetach was her brother, and her reign was happier than that of her husband. Upon her death she left two sons, Hyrcan II and Aristobul, of whom the first was to be high priest, while the second was to be king. But they soon quarrelled, and Hyrcan, who was a tool in the hands of Antipater, an Idumæan, his adviser, declared himself king. In the subsequent civil war, Pompey, the Roman general and statesman, was asked to act as arbitrator. He conquered Jerusalem, entered the Temple, and declared in favor of Hyrcan, who, however, was not made king, but given the title of Ethnarch. Aristobul was sent to Rome and the cities inhabited by Syrians were annexed to the province of Syria (60 B.C.). Aristobul’s son, Alexander, the son-in-law of Hyrcan, rebelled, but was defeated in 57 B.C. In the following year Aristobul fled from Rome and organized a rebellion, but was soon defeated and sent a prisoner to Rome with his son Antigonus.

Crassus, governor of Syria, entered the Temple and looted the treasury (54 B.C.). Shortly afterwards he fell in battle and the Jews rebelled again, but the uprising was cruelly suppressed, 30,000 being sold into slavery (53 B.C.). Cæsar, who was now the ruler of Rome, liberated Aristobul to use him against his rival Pompey, but Aristobul was poisoned and his son Alexander executed (49 B.C.). Hyrcan and Antipater joined Cæsar, who confirmed the former as Ethnarch and bestowed high distinction on the latter (47 B.C.). Antipater’s son, Herod, was made governor of Galilee, and as such executed the insurgent leader, Hezekiah, and put down the rebellion. Called before the Sanhedrin for executing a citizen without trial, he defied the court, knowing that he had the support of the Romans. After Cæsar’s assassination Antipater joined Cassius, but was himself assassinated (42 B.C.). His sons, however, remained in power, and after the battle of Philippi they joined Antony, who confirmed them as governors (42 B.C.). Antigonus, the son of Aristobul, now returned, assisted by the Parthians, enemies of Rome, and was made high priest, combining again the dignity of king and high priest (40-37 B.C.). Herod fled to Rome, where he was appointed King of the Jews by the Senate. Returning to Palestine he defeated Antigonus and reigned as king (37-34 B.C.). He married Mariamne, the granddaughter of Hyrcan and Aristobul, and appointed her brother, Aristobul, as high priest. Becoming jealous of his popularity, he caused him to be assassinated soon afterward.

Herod’s reign was marked by its splendor, but he was hated by the people for his extreme cruelty. He had his wife, Mariamne, three of his sons, the old High Priest Hyrcan II, and various other members of his family, assassinated. His unpopularity grew in spite of the fact that the country was prosperous and that he rebuilt the Temple in magnificent style. As a descendant of the Idumæans, whom Hyrcan I had converted to Judaism, he was considered a foreigner who held his power only through the assistance of Rome. From this time the name Edom became a synonym for Rome in Jewish Literature.

Herod left three sons, Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and Philip, among whom he divided his empire. Archelaus received Judæa, Samaria and Idumæa. He was to reside in Jerusalem and have the title of king. Herod Antipas was given dominion over Galilee, and Peræa and Philip received the northern district; both were to be called Tetrarchs. In Archelaus’ kingdom a revolt broke out at once, and 3,000 people were killed in the Temple courtyard. When he went to Rome to obtain confirmation of his title another rebellion broke out because of the cruelty of the Roman commander, and once more a great number of people were killed and the Temple sacked. Governor Varus was called from Syria to quell the contest and did so with great cruelty. The Roman Emperor Augustus confirmed Archelaus as ruler of Judæa but refused him the title of king; he was merely called Ethnarch. Unable to control the people, who hated him, he was deposed and exiled to Gaul, and his land made a part of the Roman province of Syria (6 C.E.). The Roman governors carried on an arbitrary and oppressive rule. A census ordered by Quirinius was bitterly resisted and almost led to open rebellion. A party of Zealots was formed under the leadership of Judah, the son of Hezekiah, whom Herod had executed. Their object was to overthrow the Roman rule, and for this purpose they began a reign of terror against all people who were supposed to be in sympathy with Rome, and assassinations were of daily occurrence.

One of the most cruel of the Roman governors, Pontius Pilate (26-36), in every possible way provoked the religious sentiments of the people, and on the slightest show of resistance, ordered wholesale butcheries of them. Many complaints were sent to Rome and he was finally recalled. Under his administration the execution of Jesus is reported to have taken place. Emperor Caligula (37-41), a typical megalomaniac, ordered his bust placed in the Temple. Petronius, the military commander, reported that it was impossible to execute this order without driving the people into open rebellion, and so Caligula modified his demand. Only his assassination prevented an outbreak of the people. He was a friend of Agrippa, the son of Aristobul, and the grandson of Herod and Mariamne, and showered his favors upon him. Agrippa was first appointed the successor of his uncle Philip with the title of king, in 37. Upon the death of Herod Antipas, Galilee was added to his dominion, and finally Emperor Claudius, upon his succession to the throne in 41, gave him Judæa also, so that he thus obtained the full heritage of his grandfather Herod. While a favorite of Rome, Agrippa was beloved by the people, but he died in the prime of his life in 44. His brother Herod, who was his successor, possessed no other right except to appoint the high priest; similarly Agrippa’s son, Agrippa II, while honored with the title of king, had practically no power. For at the death of Agrippa I Palestine was again placed under Roman governors, seven of whom held office from 44 to 66 and did their utmost to drive the people into despair by cruel executions and wanton disregard of religious feeling. The reign of terror continuing, a party called Sicarii, from Sica, a dagger, which they always carried under their garments for the punishment of those who were suspected of Roman sympathies, arose and spread anarchy all through the land.