The history of the Jews

by Gotthard Deutsch

Under Trajan (98-117) serious rebellions of the Jews occurred in Egypt, Cyprus, Cyrene, and Mesopotamia. About the causes of the disorder and the battles of the rebellion, we know nothing definite. It may be said, however, that in all likelihood oppressive taxation, cruel treatment of the people by the Roman officials, and the traditional enmity between the Jews and the Greek-speaking population of the Orient were the causes of this constant friction. Trajan sent his general, Quietus, to quell the uprising, and made him governor of Palestine. The insurrection was still in progress when Hadrian came to the throne (117-136). At first he was friendly toward the Jews and began to rebuild the Temple, by which he hoped to reconcile them. This new Temple, however, was to be dedicated to the Jupiter of the Capitol, who, as Hadrian believed, was also the God of the Jews, although he had a different name. As the Jews, however, were not willing to accept this condition, Hadrian resorted to severe religious persecution. He prohibited the practices of the Sabbath, circumcision, and the study of the Law. The result was another rebellion under the leadership of Simeon Bar Koziba, who adopted the name of Bar Kochba—“The Son of the Star”—with reference to the prophecy of the star which would smite the enemies of Israel (Num. xxiv, 17). Bar Kochba, who called himself Prince of Israel, and had coins struck with his name, was supported by a priest, Eleazar of Modin, and by Rabbi Akiba. Details of this war are unknown. It lasted, however, over three years (132-135), and then was quelled by Tineius Rufus, and Julius Severus, the latter having been called from Great Britain to take some of the troops against the rebels. The victory was complete. Whatever had been left of Jerusalem after its destruction by Titus was destroyed. The city was called Ælia Capitolina, in honer of Hadrian, whose first name was Ælius and in honor of the Jupiter of the Capitol, to whom the Temple, built on the site of the ancient Temple of Solomon, was erected. Over one of the gates of the city Hadrian had the head of a swine placed, and the Jews were forbidden entrance into the city. A great many Jews were killed in battle and many prisoners, including the most prominent spiritual leaders of the rebellion, such as Rabbi Akiba, executed. A mediæval legend speaks of ten martyrs, and gives a list which, however, comprises men who lived in different ages.

With the death of Hadrian, and the succession to the throne of Marcus Antoninus Pius (136-161) a change for the better took place. We are informed that, upon the representations of prominent Jews, Antoninus repealed the cruel laws passed by his predecessor. Jewish legends have preserved the name of Antoninus Pius as one of the most benign of rulers, and they represent him as a close personal friend of Judah the Patriarch, as a great admirer of Judaism, and even as a secret convert.

Only a few disconnected facts are known about the following emperors. Under Marcus Aurelius, the philosophic author (161-180), who, in one instance speaks with contempt of the Jews, we hear of a slave, named Callistus, sentenced to penal servitude in the mines of Sardinia for having disturbed the services of a synagogue.

Under Septimius Severus (193-211), we learn of the participation of the Jews in a rebellion, and an edict, passed in 204, declared conversion to Christianity from Judaism a crime. It was evidently intended to check the rapid progress of Christianity. Alexander Severus (222-235) is said to have been very favorable to the Jews, and his mother, Mammæa, who was regent during the first years of his reign, is said to have been favorably inclined toward the Jewish religion. Alexander had a statue of Abraham in his room and on the wall was inscribed the famous saying of Hillel, “What is hateful unto thee, do not unto thy neighbor.” The Jews of Rome had a synagogue which was named the Synagogue of Severus in his honor; he presented to it a scroll of the Torah which had been brought from Jerusalem. The mobs in Alexandria and Antioch, ever hostile to the Jews, called him Archysynagogos, “leader of the Synagogue.”

The spiritual life of the Jews, after the destruction of the Temple, received its strongest impetus from Johanan ben Zakkai, in Jabneh (Jamnia), whom legend makes a disciple of Hillel and a member of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem at the time of the destruction of the Temple. Legend further says that he succeeded in escaping from Jerusalem during the siege at a time when the Zealots in the city would not allow any one to leave it, and that he came to Vespasian, to whom he prophesied his elevation to the throne of Rome, for which, out of gratitude, the latter allowed him to open a school and establish a Sanhedrin in Jabneh. At any rate, Jabneh became the spiritual centre of Judaism at that time. Various ordinances, which Johanan ben Zakkai issued, show his desire to harmonize ancient traditions with the conditions as they developed after the destruction of the Temple. Thus, it is understood that he ordered the Shofar to be blown in Jabneh, even if New Year fell on a Sabbath; this formerly had been done only in the Temple at Jerusalem.

His successor was Gamaliel, usually called Gamaliel II, Gamaliel the elder, or Gamaliel of Jabneh (100-130). He was the great-great-grandson of the famous Hillel, who, according to tradition, was president of the Sanhedrin during the time of King Herod (Hillel, Simeon, Gamaliel, Simeon, Gamaliel). In the work of harmonizing tradition with the exigencies of the time, Gamaliel followed in the footsteps of Johanan ben Zakkai. His main activities consisted in the organization of public worship. To him is ascribed the introduction of the daily prayer (Tefillah), the eighteen benedictions (Shemoneh Esreh), to which later in his life he added one more, containing a petition against sectaries (Minim). He also composed the grace after meals, and the Passover Haggadah. He further endeavored, in all possible ways, to strengthen the authority of the President or Nasi or Ab Beth Din of the Sanhedrin, especially by claiming for himself the exclusive right to fix the calendar. In the interpretation of the law he took a lenient attitude, insisting more on the spirit than on the letter.

Opponents of his hierarchical tendencies were Eliezer ben Hyrkanos and Joshua ben Hananiah; Akiba occupied an undecided position between the two parties. Eliezer, who seems to have been favorably inclined toward Christianity, objected to a fixed ritual, but otherwise was rigorous in his interpretation of the law, and a firm believer in the authority of tradition. From obscure reports we learn that he was excommunicated by Gamaliel, his brother-in-law. Joshua was strongly opposed to Christianity, and to the hierarchical tendencies of Gamaliel, and his harsh treatment by the latter caused opposition, with the result that Gamaliel was removed from office and Eleazer ben Azariah appointed in his place. But later on a reconciliation took place, and Gamaliel was reinstated.

Akiba, the disciple of Eliezer, was the strictest opponent of Christianity, and especially of the principle which declares that the law is merely a symbol, and also of the demand that the Jews give up their national distinctiveness. His opposition to the symbolic interpretation of the law led him into its literal interpretation, based on the view that every word and letter of the Torah must be explained independently of the context. He was also a zealous advocate of Israel’s national independence, and so became the spiritual leader of the Bar Kochba rebellion. When he said, “Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself; this is the fundamental principle of the Torah,” he probably gave expression to his nationalistic sentiments. Evidently in order to accentuate the universality of Judaism, Simeon ben Azai, Akiba’s contemporary, says that the words, “This is the book of the generation of Adam,” are the fundamental principles of the Torah. Rabbi Akiba’s principle of interpreting the Torah was opposed by his contemporary, Rabbi Ishmael, who says the Torah speaks the language of men; that is, every text must be explained by its context. An important figure of that time seems to have been Elisha ben Abuyah, who is called Acher the Apostate. The stories told of him are legendary to such an extent that it is impossible to know how much, if any, historical fact underlies them.

The uprising of Bar Kochba and the subsequent prohibition of the study of law interrupted, for a while, the development of religious doctrine. Soon, however, after the succession to the throne of Antoninus Pius, in 136, the study of the law was resumed. A synod of prominent rabbis, who were mostly disciples of Akiba, met at Usha, and passed several resolutions, mostly in regard to civil law, required by the exigencies of the time. One of these provides that every one shall give one-fifth of his income to charity, thus diverting the two tithes formerly devoted to the sacrificial needs, the Levites or the poor, to communal requirements. Another resolution declared that every father was under the duty of providing for his son until the latter was twelve years old. The spiritual leaders of this age were Rabbi Meir, Judah bar Ilai, and Jose bar Halafta, and the office of Nasi was given to Gamaliel’s son, Simeon ben Gamaliel II (140-170). The latter was in turn succeeded by his son, Judah Hanasi, called Rabbi, or Rabbenu-Hakadosh, who according to a legend was born on the day on which Rabbi Akiba died (135-216). To him is due the compilation of the Mishnah or compendium of the Rabbinic law.

The word Mishnah is derived from Mishneh Torah (repetition of the law), the name of Deuteronomy. This compilation was preceded by others on a smaller scale which we do not possess. They are called, after their authors, the Mishnah of Rabbi Akiba, that of Rabbi Meir, and that of Rabbi Nathan. The object of the code compiled by Judah Hanasi was to collect the whole of the Rabbinic law. The authorities quoted in the Mishnah are called Tanaim, from ‏‎תנא‎‏ which is the Aramaic, for ‏‎שנה‎‏, the latter being a word derived from Mishnah. The Mishnah was not intended to be a code of the law but a compendium for its study. It was soon, however, accepted as an infallible book of laws, and believed to be based on early tradition dating back to Moses himself.