(b) The Polynesian food-plants.—The cultivation of the yams, the taros, the breadfruits, and the bananas in later ages all over the Pacific islands cannot here be dealt with. My readers will already know that a very ancient cultivation is in each case indicated by the occurrence of a great number of varieties. Much has been written upon this matter, and amongst the recent contributions to the subject may be reckoned Mr. Cheeseman’s interesting paper published in the Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute (vol. xxxiii).
I may here mention in connection with the Sweet Potato (Batatas edulis), a plant that may have an American origin, though much mystery surrounds its home, that it rarely seeds in Fiji except when it is grown in poor, sandy soil, and in dry, rocky situations. The Fijians were quite incredulous as to its maturing seed; but after much searching I found a solitary plant in seed and removed their doubts.
THE POLYNESIAN WEEDS
Some curious questions are raised in connection with the weeds of this region. Polynesia, says Dr. Seemann, presents a most interesting problem with regard to its weeds. It is, however, necessary to point out that these plants arrange themselves into two groups, the aboriginal weeds comprising those existing in the islands at the time of Captain Cook’s expeditions in the latter half of the eighteenth century, and the white man’s weeds that have been since introduced.
As concerning the Fijian Islands, Dr. Seemann remarked that although the majority of the non-endemic plants of the flora is Asiatic, “the bulk of the weeds is of American origin, or, at all events, is now found in America.” His principal point was to show that American weeds displayed a greater disposition than Asiatic weeds to spread in Fiji, because Fiji was to American plants altogether virgin ground. This is a purely botanical matter, and we are not in a position to oppose a conclusion formed by such a careful observer of plant life. But to the ethnologist it is a very different matter whether most of the Fijian weeds are of American origin or merely now exist in America. His interest lies entirely in the aboriginal weeds. To the student of plant-dispersal this distinction is also a very important one; and his interest again is all on the side of the aboriginal weeds.
Dr. Seemann enumerates 64 Fijian weeds, of which at least 37 were in the Pacific islands when Captain Cook’s botanists made their collections (see [Note 82]). Of these 22 occur in continental regions on both sides of the Pacific, 13 are natives of the Old World alone, and two only are seemingly American exclusively, namely, Waltheria americana and Teucrium inflatum. The first is claimed to be American because most species of the genus are American, but it is now widely distributed in the Old World as well as in America. The second, though widely distributed in tropical America, has strangely enough only been found in the islands of the Western Pacific.
The important point is thus brought out that although in Captain Cook’s time the food-plants cultivated by the Polynesians, such as the banana, the breadfruit, the taro, and the yams, were almost exclusively Asiatic in origin and bore Malayan names, a large proportion of the weeds were not exclusively Asiatic, but occurred in America as well as in the Old World. The inference to be drawn, however, is not, as Dr. Seemann implies, that the Polynesians derived several of their weeds from America (since with few exceptions all the aboriginal weeds named in [Note 82] occur in the Old World, and in more than a third of the plants in the Old World only), but that many so-called cosmopolitan weeds were distributed very much as they are now, when the Polynesians brought their food plants from Indo-Malaya into the Pacific.
Weeds follow the cultivator in all climates; and it is very natural that, as Mr. Hemsley points out, plants which seem to owe their wide dispersal to cultivation are not found in Australia (Bot. Chall. Exped., iii, 142). The Australian native as a rule cultivates nothing. Yet I fancy that man’s share in weed dispersal is as often as not merely restricted to producing the conditions favourable to the growth of weeds, and that the seeds are often brought by birds and other agencies. Many weeds of the genera Atriplex, Polygonum, and Ranunculus are dispersed by partridges in England, and I have often found the uninjured fruits of the plants in the stomachs of these birds. Many weeds, like Prunella vulgaris, Plantago major, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Luzula campestris, and several others named in [Note 43], possess seeds or fruits that become “sticky” when wet, and would readily adhere to a bird’s plumage.
We can also say of tropical weeds that many of them are distributed by birds. In the crop of a dove in Hawaii I found a number of the small dry fruits of Waltheria americana, the widely spread tropical weed before mentioned, and of another weed of the order Compositæ. On the bare rocky peak of one of the Vanua Levu mountains the only plants found growing were Oxalis corniculata and a species of Peperomia, both of them evidently growing from seed dropped by birds. The fruits of Urena lobata and of species of Sida, as well as those of Bidens pilosa and Ageratum conyzoides, could be readily dispersed, entangled by their appendages in the plumage of birds, whilst the sticky achenes of Adenostemma viscosum would easily adhere to feathers. Weeds with drupes or berries like Geophila reniformis and Solanum oleraceum would attract frugivorous birds, and I have often seen berries of the last-named pecked by birds. Man has doubtless often been the agent in dispersing the seeds of Leguminous weeds like Lablab vulgaris. On the other hand, we know from the observations of Focke (see page [150]) that birds can distribute the seeds of a plant like Vicia faba; and in the Pacific islands it is evident from the frequent occurrence of Tephrosia piscatoria on bare rocky hill tops that its seeds are dispersed through the same agency. Birds also probably carry about the seeds of Cardiospermum halicacabum.
If we based our conclusion solely on the distribution of weeds without a previous study of their means of dispersal we might, as students of the distribution of man, acquire some startling and very erroneous notions on the history of the races of man, especially in the New World. Lacking such an acquaintance with existing modes of dispersal it would not be prudent to attach too much importance to the occurrence of Asiatic weeds in America and of American weeds in Asia. Mr. Hemsley, in his work on the botany of Central America (Biologia Centrali-Americana), gives a list of ten British plants of world-wide range, which we will designate plants of waste places rather than weeds. They are plants often found not only in the Old and New Worlds, but also in the southern hemisphere, and I will here name them: Radiola millegrana, Alchemilla vulgaris, Cotyledon umbilicus, Lythrum salicaria, Convolvulus sepium, Sibthorpia europæa, Prunella vulgaris, Lycopus europæus, Aira cæspitosa, Luzula campestris. According to this authority these plants “are most unlikely to have been aided, intentionally or unintentionally, by man” and “possess no special means of dispersion by animals or birds or the elements” in the way, as is implied, of appendages like hooks, hairs, a pappus, &c.