FOOTNOTES:
[201] J. M. Jost, a German Jew, born A.D. 1793, died 1860, a professor first at Berlin, and afterwards at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. He is the author of the History of the Israelites, in nine volumes, published in 1820-28, and of the History of Judaism, in three volumes, which appeared later. Up to the time of the appearance of H. Graetz’s great work, The History of the Jews, Jost’s was the most trustworthy authority. ‘It is the mature work,’ writes Milman, ‘of an indefatigable and eminently fair writer. Of course, as a Jew, he presents the doctrines and usages of his race in a favourable light, but he always fully deserves a respectful and candid hearing’ (Milm. Hist. Jews, vol. ii. p. 476 n.).
[202] Israel and the Gentiles (Da Costa, p. 519), a work I have often consulted with profit.
[203] The readiness of the Jews of the Ukraine to employ themselves in agriculture may be accounted for by the extreme fertility of the soil. In natural productiveness no portion of Europe surpasses, and few can be found to equal it. Wheat, oats, and barley are raised with scarcely any exertion of labour, and the pasture-land is rich and luxuriant. This may account for the singular difference of habits which the Jews of these countries exhibit, as compared with their countrymen everywhere else. It should be added that, as there is little trade and few manufactures, many of them, at all events, must live by agriculture or not at all.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
A.D. 1700-1800.
THE JEWS IN POLAND: THE CHASIDIM—FRANK—MENDELSSOHN.
From the times of the Maccabees, if not earlier, to those of the impostor Sabbathai Sevi, Rabbinism had prevailed in the Jewish Church. The only opposition had come from the Karaites, of whom we have already spoken, and they were but a small sect, commanding little influence. Eminent Jews, again, such as Solomon Ben Abraham of Montpellier, in the thirteenth century, or Nathanael Tribotti of Rome, or the more renowned Maimonides, might put forward opinions which the Rabbins condemned, proceeding sometimes to the excommunication of the offending writers. But either the latter submitted, or modified their opinions, or their judges reconsidered their decisions; and Rabbinical theology continued in the main unaltered. But the followers of Sabbathai Sevi formed themselves into a distinct sect, calling themselves Jews indeed, and professing the principal doctrines of the Jewish faith, but differing from it, at the same time, in the most essential particulars.
His followers, as we have seen, were not alienated by his apostasy or undeceived by his death. One prophet rose after another, who formed his own theological system, resembling Sabbathaism in its general outline, but having peculiar and distinctive features of its own. Most of these secured, during their lifetime, at all events, a large and enthusiastic following, while, in some instances, their teaching was adopted as a rule of faith long after they had passed away from earth. Among these prophets two of the most remarkable were Malach and Hajun. These men were two Rabbins belonging, the one to a Polish, the other to a German, synagogue, who, A.D. 1700, had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, there to announce the immediate coming of the Messiah. Most of their companions died of want or fatigue on the journey; and nearly all the survivors, following the example of Sabbathai, went over to Islamism. But the two leaders, and especially Hajun, zealously propagated their opinions, notwithstanding the most determined opposition of the Rabbins of Jerusalem and Constantinople. Among the doctrines preached by Hajun was that of a Trinity of Gods, though the Three were perfect in their unity. This dogma—very nearly coinciding, if not identical, with the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity—he professed to find in the Book of Zohar.[204]
It is scarcely necessary to add that such teaching provoked the animosity of the Rabbins to the utmost. In A.D. 1722 Hajun and his followers were publicly excommunicated by all the synagogues, and his influence in the East was almost entirely destroyed. In Central Europe, however, he obtained some support. He ingratiated himself with the Emperor Charles VI. by his denunciation of the Jews, and many congregations in Bohemia and Moravia attached themselves to him. Attempts were made to extend his influence into Holland, Hungary, and other European countries, but with little success. A similar movement was initiated shortly afterwards by Moses Luzzato; who, in concert with a physician named Jethukiel, collected a congregation at Wilna. He was excommunicated by the Rabbins, and repeatedly obliged to retract his statements. He led a wandering, unsettled life, and at last travelled to Jerusalem, where he ended his days in 1747.
Another and more important sect, appearing at least to derive its origin from Sabbathaism, is that of the Chasidim, which established itself chiefly in Poland, Galicia, and Russia. This is, according to a well-known writer of the present day, the religion of nearly all the Jews in Galicia, Hungary, Southern Russia, and Wallachia. Its founder was one Israel Baal Schem, who first appeared in Podolia in 1740. He claimed to be the representative of God on earth, and as such, his commands were to be obeyed with implicit submission. His early history is full of fable, wild, extravagant tales being told of it, which are unworthy of repetition. The orthodox Rabbins say he was a man of mean rank and extraction, possessed of no real ability, and who affected sanctity and mystery in order to impress his followers. A certain supernatural power was invariably claimed by the students of Cabbalism, but those assumed by Israel had apparently no limit. He could absolve from all sin; he could cure all diseases by his simple command; he could work the most stupendous miracles; he was endowed with all knowledge, not only of the past, but of the future also. The main drift of his teaching, which entirely rejected the Talmud as a Rabbinical tradition, was the necessity of learning, by continual contemplation and self-mortification, the true nature of God, and also of entire submission to the Tzaddikhim, or priesthood. We are told by Dr. M’Caul that they are in the habit of spending every Sabbath with their Tzaddik, coming in for the purpose from many miles round, bringing with them provisions for the meals of the day, as well as presents for the Tzaddik. They consult him in all difficulties, accepting his replies as inspired by Heaven; arrange their private affairs, and compose their quarrels at his bidding. At Israel Baal Schem’s death, his disciples insist that he was taken up to heaven, there to dwell with the holy angels, and make effectual intercession with Almighty God in behalf of every Jew who brings up his children in accordance with the teaching of Chasidism, and obeys the Tzaddik. He was succeeded in his authority by his three grandsons, who were his chief disciples. But this of necessity broke up the community into three distinct bodies, and further divisions have since taken place, though the various synagogues of Chasidists spread over the countries of Eastern Europe are on the whole at unity with one another.
A few years later another strange development of Cabbalistic Sabbathaism made its appearance, under the name of Zoharism. Jacob Frank, its founder, is said to have been born in Poland, circ. A.D. 1722. In his youth he was a distiller of brandy, and he first appeared as a religious teacher in Turkey, A.D. 1760. He was then approaching his fortieth year. He followed the Chasidists in his attacks on the Talmud and his devotion to the Book of Zohar. Such fierce dissensions ensued that the Polish Government,—for it was in Poland that he first put forth his theological dogmas,—found it necessary to interfere. But Frank found a protector in the Bishop of Kaminiek, who perceived, or thought he perceived, in Frank’s system the elements of Catholic Christianity. Frank himself encouraged this by submitting to Christian baptism, and publicly burning the Talmud. He also declared his belief that God had appeared in human form for the expiation of man’s transgression, and that He will hereafter appear again, also in human form, for the final deliverance from the power of evil. This sounded orthodox enough; but Frank was careful not to say in whose person God had thus appeared on earth, and whether, in fact, he accepted Jesus Christ, or Sabbathai Sevi, as the Messiah.