Pellagra is a chronic disease in Northern and Central Italy, which gives rise to extensive disturbances of digestion and to cutaneous and nervous disorders, and frequently leads to severe mental disturbance. In Lombroso’s view it results from the frequent use of damaged maize, containing toxins, which is consumed by the peasantry of Northern and Middle Italy in the form of polenta and maize bread, whilst the ground landlords and their bailiffs live upon the better qualities of maize produced by the same peasants. I may quote here a passage from the Preface to my German translation of Lombroso’s book on pellagra:
“This book is the result of researches which I have pursued for twenty-nine years, often amid very tragic surroundings—tragic for the reason that from these researches alone I am able to show how human nature strives against every step towards progress, and regards it almost as a crime. In Italy it is a secret to no one that my attempt to show, in opposition to the dominant doctrine, and upon the foundation of numerous experiments, that pellagra results from intoxication with damaged maize, aroused so much hostility—I may almost say so much scandal—in the majority of Italian hygienists and psychiatrists, that in consequence of this my reputation as a practising physician, as an investigator, and ultimately also as a teacher, was severely shaken. The cause of this bitter opposition is perhaps to be found in the greater cleverness of my opponents, who regarded my energetic advocacy of the new theory in the light of a personal attack, whereas it was really the consequence of my too earnest conviction, and of the thought that it was only in this way that I could hope to save thousands and tens of thousands from being unnecessarily sacrificed. But a greater cause of opposition was undoubtedly the hatred of novelty—that deep-rooted passion common to all humanity. At first, indeed, it seemed to me as if the truth must always conquer, and conquer quickly, since in this case it was an obvious truth, one easy to prove, and a very natural one. Nor do I doubt that ultimately the truth will inevitably prevail, for the cleverest machinations must in the end recoil from the granite walls they endeavour to overthrow. But he who believes that this will occur at once and universally is one who knows little of human nature. Indeed, we must expect the contrary, for all truths which can only be proved by means of a long series of experiments or by long-continued observations rarely fail to encounter an almost insuperable obstacle; and when, in addition, economic class-interests stand in the way—when these co-operate with the influence of custom, of inheritance, and of natural human short-sightedness—then woe to the innovator. As Macaulay said, if the Newtonian law had been opposed to any class-interest, there would have been no lack of opposition to the doctrine of universal gravitation.”
It was in the prolonged struggle for his professional life with the powerful interests he had challenged by the publication of his discovery of the cause of pellagra that Lombroso became hardened and completely insensitive to the detraction which is always manifested so freely when scientific truths are displeasing to the economic or political powers-that-be.[[45]]
Thus it was that Lombroso was forced into the arena of public life, and although he did not become definitely attached to any particular party, he never ceased to attack half-measures and corruption wherever he encountered them. When the political corruption under the rule of Crispi led to the bread-riots at Milan in 1898, the people had an opportunity of experiencing the use of rifle-fire by the apostles of “order”; and the dictatorial powers usurped during these weeks were utilized for the banishment of troublesome political opponents, or to bring about their disappearance in prison—the methods of South American experts in the pursuit of political power being freely followed. The name of Lombroso was upon the list of the proscribed, but they did not dare to lay hand upon him; just as in Russia five years ago the authorities did not dare to touch Tolstoy, notwithstanding his direct challenge to the Czar.[[46]] Thus it was to the struggles amid which he was precipitated by his investigations into the nature of pellagra that Lombroso owed the development of his nature as a fighter, which enabled him to withstand the most violent scientific and political opponents of his theory of the “born criminal.” Experiences of life even more bitter than those of Ibsen’s “Enemy of the People” were met by Lombroso in a spirit of lofty stoicism.
Owing to his struggle to establish the truth of his views regarding the cause and prevention of pellagra, Lombroso suffered from a recurrence of the economic struggles which had embittered his childhood and youth. The powerful agrarian interests of Lombardy and Venice established a boycott against Lombroso as a physician amongst the well-to-do middle class and also in the medical circle of Northern Italy; and as a result of this his consulting practice, which had hitherto been enormous, and his resulting comfortable circumstances, and therewith also the means he needed for the prosecution of his researches, were all swept away. “Cause and Prevention”—these two words sum up the whole life-work of this man. Cause and prevention of pellagra, of crime, of anarchism, prostitution, anti-semitism, political corruption, self-interested parliamentarism; cause and prevention of lying, hypocrisy, oppression and exploitation—these were the tasks to which Lombroso devoted his whole life, and which he prosecuted without rest and without fear, until at length, after so many struggles, a comprehensive understanding and a calm, mature wisdom finally led him to recognize the manner in which the evils affecting society are inseparably associated with wealth and civilization.
The investigation into the nature of pellagra was of enormous importance to the Italians, who continued to suffer severely from this evil down to the present day. We might be justified here in giving a detailed account of these studies, because it was in them that Lombroso, above all, showed himself to be a careful experimenter—an experimental pathologist of the first rank. But from the point of view of this book, the significance of these investigations and struggles lies, not so much in the enrichment and development of his knowledge—not so much, that is to say, in the intellectual sphere—as in the light they throw upon the man’s intimate life, and upon his character.
In my concluding chapter I shall give some account of the means employed by those whose interests were affected by Lombroso’s discoveries (in co-operation with those to whom, as a self-taught man, and one outside the official and professorial ring, he was an object of dislike) to annihilate this obnoxious investigator. To the extent of depriving him of his means of livelihood in Pavia, they were to a large extent successful. But after a struggle lasting thirty years, Lombroso’s intoxication theory of pellagra has been finally victorious, and has been officially recognized by the Italian Government. Moreover, this theory has been confirmed by the most recent investigations of Tirelli, Pellizzi, Gosio, and Ferrati, although other toxins of damaged maize are now considered to be of greater importance than the one to which Lombroso gave the name of “pellagrozeïn.”
Lombroso’s proposals in the province of agrarian reform were in part of a purely technical nature, and in part based upon a profound (and in his day, at least, well-grounded) distrust of the rival factions in the Italian parliament. At one time he went so far as to believe that nothing could be done to save the peasants and small farmers from pellagra, as long as they remained in their North Italian homes; and he recommended a wholesale emigration to North America.[[47]]
It is not improbable that Lombroso, notwithstanding the universality of his talents and his enormous historical acquirements, would, in better pecuniary circumstances, have confined himself to the study of comparative philology and to the associated field of psychology. It was to these studies that he was principally attracted in youth, and his acquaintance with Marzolo further impelled him in this direction; but precisely because of his poverty he was compelled to abandon a career of learning, and to choose a means of earning his bread. For six years he worked as an army surgeon on the battle-field, in the cholera hospital, and in a small garrison town; until, finally, in the problems of the psychical life of the criminal, the lunatic, and the genius, this born collector of human documents found within the domain of the medical profession, whose humane duties he fulfilled unweariedly as prison surgeon, a field in which his intellect could exercise its powers, in which his character could manifest its strength, and in which his temperament could display its treasures of modesty, love of humanity, and inexhaustible patience.
At length, however, this “enemy of the people,” this audacious formulator of hypotheses, this innovator and rebel, found himself in advanced life recognized by his fellow-countrymen as a benefactor, by his colleagues as the pride of their national science, and by his King as the enlightener of his country.[[48]]