| TABLE 25 | |
|---|---|
| Allowable Bearing Value on Soils in Various Cities | |
| From Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol. 46, 1920, p. 906 | |
| Quicksand and alluvial soil | ½ to 1 ton per sq. ft. for Providence, R. I., ½ ton per sq. ft. for 6 cities |
| Soft clay | 1 ton per sq. ft. for 27 cities, ¾ ton per sq. ft. for New Orleans, 2 to 3 tons for Providence, R. I. |
| Moderately dry clay and fine sand, clean and dry | 2 tons for 7 cities, 1¾ to 2¼ for Chicago, 2½ tons for Louisville, 2 to 4 tons for Providence, 3 tons for Grand Rapids and Los Angeles |
| Clay and sand in alternate layers | 2 tons for 19 cities, 1¾ to 2¼ for Chicago, 3 to 5 tons for Providence |
| Firm and dry loam or clay, or hard dry clay or fine sand | 3 tons for 24 cities, 2½ tons for 2 cities, 2 to 3 tons for Atlanta, 3½ tons for Philadelphia, 4 tons for 6 cities |
| Compact coarse sand, stiff gravel or natural earth | 4 tons for 25 cities, 3½ tons for Buffalo, 3 to 4 tons for Atlanta, 4 to 5 tons for Cincinnati, 5 tons for Denver, 4 to 6 tons for 3 cities, 6 tons for Rochester, N. Y. |
| Coarse gravel, stratified stone and clay, or rock inferior to best brick masonry | 6 tons for 3 cities, 5 tons for 2 cities, 8 tons for 1 city |
| Gravel and sand well cemented | 8 tons for 5 cities, 6 tons for 2 cities, 8 to 10 tons for 1 city |
| Good hard pan or hard shale | 10 tons for 4 cities, 6 tons for 2 cities, 8 tons for 1 city |
| Good hard pan or hard shale unexposed to air, frost or water | 8 tons for 1 city, 10 to 15 tons for 1 city, 12 to 18 tons for 1 city |
| Very hard native bed rock | 20 tons for 5 cities, 15 tons for 1 city, 10 tons for 1 city, 25 to 50 tons for 1 city |
| Rock under caisson | 24 tons for Baltimore, 25 tons for Cleveland |
On soft foundations such as swamps or for outfalls on the muck bottom of rivers the sewer may be carried on a platform. For small sewers 2–inch planks, 2 to 4 feet longer than the diameter of the pipe are laid across the trench, and the sewer rests directly upon them. For large sewers imposing a heavy concentrated load, a pile foundation should be constructed. The foundation may consist of piles alone, pile bents, or a wooden platform supported on pile bents. The load which can be carried by a pile is determined with accuracy only by driving a test pile and placing a load on it. Where piles do not penetrate to a firm stratum the load they will support can be determined by any one of the various formulas, either theoretical or empirical, which have been devised. Probably the best known of these formulas are the so-called Engineering News formulas one of which is:
P = 2Wh
S + 1 for a pile driven by a drop hammer,
in which P = the safe load on the pile in pounds. The factor of safety is 6; W = the weight of the hammer in pounds; h = the fall of the hammer in feet; S = the penetration of the pile in inches at the last driving blow. The blow is assumed to be driven on sound wood without rebound of the hammer.
Reference should be made to engineering handbooks for other forms of pile formulas. The accuracy of all of these formulas is not of a high degree.
The piles are driven at about 2 to 4 feet centers, to a depth of from 8 to 20 feet, unless hard bottom is struck at a lesser depth. The butt diameter of the piles used for the smallest sewers is about 6 to 8 inches. If bents are used, 2 or 3 piles are driven in a row across the line of the sewer and are capped with a timber. For brick, block, pipe, and some concrete sewers, a wooden platform must be constructed between the pile bents for the support of the sewer.
67. Underdrains.—The construction of special foundations can sometimes be avoided by laying drains under the sewers, thus removing the water held in the soil. The laying of the underdrains facilitates the construction of the sewer and reduces the amount of ground water entering the sewer. The underdrains usually consist of 6– or 8–inch vitrified tile laid with open joints from 1 to 2 feet below the bottom of the sewer as shown in Fig. 1. If the sewers are large, parallel lines of drains may be laid beneath them. An observation hole should be constructed from the bottom of the manhole to each underdrain. This hole usually consists of a 6– or 8–inch pipe, embedded in concrete, connected to the drain and open at the top. It is too small to permit effective cleaning of the underdrains, which are usually neglected after construction, and which as a result clog and cease to function. Since the principal period of usefulness of the drains is during construction, their stoppage after the work is completed is not serious. The hollow tile used in vitrified block sewers serve as underdrains after construction, but are of little or no assistance to the draining of the trench during construction.
CHAPTER VII
PUMPS AND PUMPING STATIONS
68. Need.—In the design of a sewerage system it is occasionally necessary to concentrate the sewage of a low-lying district at some convenient point from which it must be lifted by pumps. In the construction of sewers in flat topography the grade required to cause proper velocity of sewage flow necessitates deep excavation. It is sometimes less expensive to raise the sewage by pumping than to continue the construction of the sewers with deep excavation.
In the operation of a sewage-treatment plant a certain amount of head is necessary. If the sewage is delivered to the plant at a depth too great to make possible the utilization of gravity for the required head, pumps must be installed to lift the sewage. In the construction of large office buildings, business blocks, etc., the sub-basements are frequently constructed below the sewer level. The sewage and other drainage from the low portion of the building must therefore be removed by pumping. Because pumps are often an essential part of a sewerage system, their details should be understood by the engineer who must write the specifications under which they are purchased and installed.