A History of Roman Literature

by Harold North Fowler

Minucius Felix, about 160 A. D.—Tertullian, about 160 to about 230 A. D.—St. Cyprian, about 200-258 A. D.—Commodianus 249 A. D.—Arnobius, about 290 A. D.—Lactantius, about 300 A. D.

The Christians are mentioned by Tacitus, the younger Pliny, and Suetonius, but in such a way as to show that their religion was misunderstood and their growing importance little appreciated. The beginning of Christian literature in Latin. But as time went on, Christianity and the Christians became more and more important. Various means were tried to suppress them, for their belief and their practises were opposed to the state religion and seemed inimical to the state itself. Yet the new religion continued to gain in the number and influence of its converts, and in the second century Christian writings begin to appear in Latin. The new religion had been founded in the eastern part of the empire, and its first literary productions were in Greek, a language which continued for many years to be the chief medium of expression for Christian thought. No sketch of the development of Christianity, even in the western part of the empire, could be given without more than a mere mention of the early Greek Christian writings; but the development of Christianity is a subject quite outside of the scope of this book, which is concerned with Christian literature only in so far as it was written in Latin. Nor is it possible in a book of this kind to do more than mention briefly the chief Christian writers and their works, leaving all discussion of their doctrines to the historians of the church.

The first Christian writer of Latin is Marcus Minucius Felix, of whose life nothing is known except that he was a barrister (causidicus) at Rome, that he was a pagan in early life, and that he became a Christian. Minucius Felix. His only extant work is a defense of Christianity entitled Octavius, which was written probably not far from 160 A. D. The introduction tells how Minucius., with his two friends Octavius and Cæcilius, was walking by the seashore at Ostia. Cæcilius saluted a statue of Serapis which they happened to pass, whereupon Octavius rebuked Minucius for letting his friend remain in ignorance of the true religion. They continue their walk, but Cæcilius can not let the rebuke of Octavius pass. At last the three friends sit down, Cæcilius undertakes the defense of the old religion, Octavius that of the new, and Minucius is to be judge of their arguments. Cæcilius argues that it is absurd for persons of little education, such as are most Christians, to think that they can settle questions which have puzzled the wisest philosophers. The Roman religion should therefore be retained, especially as the power of the gods has often been shown. An attack upon the lives and ceremonies of the Christians follows, which is interesting as a proof of the ignorance that prevailed in pagan circles. Cæcilius then attacks the Christian belief in a future life, and ends with a recommendation of skepticism. His speech is vigorous and even vehement, showing marked rhetorical training. Octavius in his reply takes up the various points raised by Cæcilius and replies to them in order. He lays the chief stress upon the unity of God and the absurdities of pagan polytheism and philosophy. There is no argument based upon the crucifixion or the resurrection of Christ, no argument that is strictly Christian. There is no appeal to faith or to love, but only to reason, and the arguments are not drawn from the Bible, but from the works of pagan philosophers, especially Cicero’s De Natura Deorum and Seneca’s writings, or from the experiences of human life. When Octavius has finished, Cæcilius declares that he is convinced and the friends separate.

The Octavius is different from other early writings in defense of Christianity, inasmuch as it bases no argument upon the Bible and makes no appeal to the emotions. These peculiarities are most easily explained by the theory that Minucius wrote his treatise as a reply to a speech of Fronto against Christianity, that he put the substance of Fronto’s speech into the mouth of Cæcilius, and then, in the person of Octavius, refuted it point for point. In style Minucius attains at times an almost classic elegance and simplicity, though he shows the influence of the rhetorical schools of the Silver Age and is sometimes needlessly emphatic. He continues the tradition of the classical school, with no trace of the affectations or innovations of Fronto or Apuleius. Apart from its interest as the earliest specimen of Christian writing in Latin, the Octavius deserves to be read as the most attractive Latin prose after the time of Trajan.

Minucius Felix is known to us by only one short work, in which he displays conservative literary taste, cultivated imagination, and ability to conduct an argument calmly and dispassionately. Tertullian. Tertullian, a much more important figure than Minucius in the history of the church, is known by a great body of writings, in which the qualities he shows are almost the opposite of those we admire in Minucius. Yet Tertullian is an interesting and powerful figure in the history of literature as well as in that of the church. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus was born at Carthage, probably about 160 A. D., and may have died about 230 A. D. At any rate, the period of his chief activity was in the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla. In early life he was a pagan, but was converted to Christianity, possibly through his wife, who was a Christian. He attained the position of presbyter in the church. In middle life he became a Montanist—that is, a follower of Montanus, an enthusiast of Ardaba, in Mysia, who declared himself the Comforter promised by Christ, claimed prophetic powers, declared that the end of the world was at hand, and promulgated a variety of strict doctrines and rules for conduct. The writings of Tertullian are from beginning to end controversial. Some of them are in defense of Christianity against the heathen, while others are directed against those Christian beliefs and practises which he does not approve. To the second class belong the writings in support of Montanism, for Tertullian was of such a passionate nature that an argument in support of any doctrine necessarily becomes an attack upon those who hold any other views. As the chief advocate of Montanism in the west, Tertullian softened some of its more obviously absurd doctrines, but could not modify them so far as to make them acceptable to the church at large. He was therefore in constant opposition to the church during the latter part of his life, and at a later time his writings came to be regarded as heretical. Nevertheless, his works were much read, and his Apologeticus was even translated into Greek.

Tertullian exercised the greatest influence upon the Latin of the church, for up to his time most speculative Christian writing had been in Greek, and he was therefore obliged to invent or adapt the suitable means for the expression of those thoughts and ideas which were unknown to the pagan writers. Style of Tertullian. He is justly regarded as the founder of western, as opposed to eastern or Greek, theology. His style is harsh, inelegant, and sometimes obscure, but vigorous and animated. His eloquence is that of intense earnestness rather than of careful training. His vocabulary is not strictly classic, but contains expressions taken from the popular speech and from Greek, as well as others which he seems to have formed for himself. He has been called the Cicero of the church, but whatever the greatness of his eloquence, it has little resemblance in quality to that of Cicero. Only in a few orations does Cicero approach the enthusiastic earnestness of Tertullian, and the polished beauty of Cicero’s periods is utterly lacking to Tertullian’s rugged utterance. His style has more resemblance in detail to that of his fellow-African Apuleius, but shows no evidence of conscious imitation. He uses short sentences, as a rule, and even his long sentences have no periodic structure; he strives for effect by means of unnatural expressions; he delights in antitheses, plays on words, and even rhymes. His Latin is hard to read, but his originality of thought and his passionate earnestness of purpose compensate fully for his defects of style. With Minucius Felix Christian writing in Italy appears as an attempt to express Christian thoughts, or at least to defend the Christian religion, with all the elegance of classical Latinity. Tertullian writes with vigor and enthusiasm, hampered by no classical traditions. The relative importance of the Italian and African schools may be judged in a measure by the difference in extent between the brief treatise of Minucius and Tertullian’s voluminous writings. For nearly two centuries the style of Tertullian predominates, being only gradually assimilated to the classical norm, until St. Augustine fixes the Latin of the church by forming a style in which the African elements are subordinate.

The beginning of this change is seen even in the writings of Tertullian’s admirer, St. Cyprian. Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus was born of pagan parents about 200 A. D. The place of his birth is unknown, but we are informed that he was an African. He received a good education and became a teacher of rhetoric. Cyprian. After his conversion he became a presbyter, and in 248 or 249 A. D. was chosen bishop of Carthage, not without opposition. From January 21, 250 A. D., until the beginning of March in the following year, he lived in concealment to escape the persecution of the Christians under Decius. His avoidance of martyrdom at this time was severely criticized, but he defended it on the ground that his life was necessary to the welfare of the church. In 257 A. D. a new persecution was instituted by the Emperor Valerian, and Cyprian was banished to Curubis, but afterwards recalled to Carthage and confined to his gardens. When ordered to appear before the proconsul at Utica he fled, but returned to his gardens when the proconsul came to Carthage. He was arrested September 13, 258 A. D., and on the following day was tried, condemned, and executed. Cyprian’s writings comprise thirteen treatises and eighty-one letters, among which are several letters manifestly by other authors. Some of the treatises or tracts are addressed to individuals, and some of the letters are to all intents and purposes tracts, so that the division into two classes is not easy to carry out consistently. His writings are partly in defense of Christianity against paganism, partly for the encouragement of the Christians in persecution, and partly on various points of church discipline. His letters are especially valuable for the light they throw upon church history. His doctrines are orthodox, and his writings were therefore not open to the objections urged against those of Tertullian. He was, however, an ardent admirer of Tertullian, and shows the constant influence of his teachings. His style is easier and simpler than Tertullian’s, always clear, and often attractive. Although he lacks Tertullian’s originality, he excels him in ability to express his thoughts so as to appeal to the reader.

The earliest Christian poet is Commodianus. Of his life little is known, and the statement that he was born at Gaza, in Syria, is based upon a somewhat doubtful interpretation of the title of one of his poems.[133] Commodianus. In early life he was a pagan, but was converted, and became a bishop. His works consist of a long poem in defense of Christianity (Carmen Apologeticum) and a collection of eighty short poems called Instructions (Instructiones per Litteras Versuum Primas) so composed that the initial letters of the lines spell the titles of the poems. The Carmen Apologeticum contains references which fix its date in 249 A. D. The poems are remarkable for the earnestness of their Christian feeling and still more for their metrical peculiarities. The hexameters are divided into halves, and at the end of each half the rules for quantity are observed, while in the rest of the verse those rules are disregarded. The lines are not merely faulty hexameters, but a new and original combination of quantitative verse and prose. In the Carmen Apologeticum the lines are arranged in pairs, so that each pair forms a distich. The most remarkable part of the Carmen Apologeticum is the fantastic description of the end of the world with which the poem closes. The Instructiones are divided into two books, the first warning the heathen and the Jews to lay aside their errors, the second containing advice for the various classes of Christians. In spite of the dryness of his style Commodianus is interesting as the earliest Christian poet, and the student of language finds in his poems many words and constructions taken from the common speech of the people.

Much less interest attaches to the seven books Adversus Nationes (Against the Gentiles) by Arnobius, who wrote under Diocletian (284-305 A. D.). Jerome says that Arnobius was a distinguished rhetor at Sicca in Africa, who opposed Christianity for a long time. Arnobius. When he became converted the bishop demanded a proof of his faith, whereupon he wrote a work against the heathen and was received into the church. Whether this report is accurate or not, a work is extant under the name of Arnobius, entitled Adversus Nationes, which shows by its style that the author had been trained in the practise of rhetoric. The first two books defend the Christians against the accusations of their enemies, especially the charge that the misfortunes of the world were due to the progress of Christianity and the neglect of the old gods. The five remaining books proceed to show the absurdities of polytheism and the foolishness of the pagan forms of worship. Arnobius has little knowledge of the Christian religion and little originality of thought. The only doctrine peculiar to him is his theory that the soul is not immortal by nature, but may become immortal through the grace of God. His style is disfigured by its excessive vehemence and artificial rhetoric, which shows, however, that the author was carefully educated. This appears also in his discussion of pagan philosophy and religion, and indeed the chief interest attaching to the books Adversus Nationes is their testimony to the manner in which an educated pagan employed his education in the service of Christianity.