168. Bleaching.—In the process of manufacture, flours are often subjected to air containing traces of nitrogen peroxide gas, generated by electrical action and resulting in the union of the oxygen and nitrogen of the air. This whitens and improves the color of the flour. Bleached flours differ neither in chemical composition nor in nutritive value from unbleached flours, except that bleached flours contain a small amount (about one part to one million parts of flour) of nitrite reacting material, which is removed during the process of bread making. The amount of nitrites produced in flour during bleaching is less than is normally present in the saliva, or is found naturally in many vegetable foods, or in smoked or cured meats, or in bread made from unbleached flour and baked in a gas oven where nitrites are produced from combustion of the gas. The bleaching of flour cannot be regarded as in any way injurious to health or as adulteration, and a bleached flour which has good gluten and bread-making qualities is entirely satisfactory. It is not possible to successfully bleach low-grade flours so they will resemble the high grades, because the bran impurities of the low grades blacken during bleaching and become more prominent. Alway, of the Nebraska Experiment Station, has shown that there is no danger to apprehend from over-bleaching, for when excess of the bleaching reagent is used, flours become yellow in color[[65]]. Similar results have been obtained at the Minnesota Experiment Station. As bleaching is not injurious to health, and as it is not possible through bleaching to change low grades so as to resemble the patent grades, bleaching resolves itself entirely into the question of what color of flour the consumer desires. Pending the settlement of the status of bleaching the practice has been largely discontinued.
Fig. 45.—Wheat
Hairs and Débris in
Low Grade Flours.
169. Adulteration of Flour.—Flour is not easily adulterated, as the addition of any foreign material interferes with the expansion and bread-making qualities and hence is readily detected. The mixing of other cereals, as corn flour, with wheat flour has been attempted at various times when wheat commanded a high price, but this also is readily detected, by microscopic examination, as the corn starch and wheat starch grains are quite different in mechanical structure. Such flours are required to be labeled, in accord with the congressional act of 1898, when Congress passed, in advance of the general pure food bill, an act regulating the labeling and sale of mixed and adulterated flours. Various statements have been made in regard to the adulteration of flour with minerals, as chalk and barytes, but such adulteration does not appear to be at all general.
170. Nutritive Value of Flour.—From a nutritive point of view, wheat flour and wheat bread have a high value.[[66]] A larger amount of nutrients can be secured for a given sum of money in the form of flour than of any other food material except corn meal. According to statistics, the average per capita consumption of wheat in the United States is about 4½ bushels, or, approximately, one barrel per year, and from recent investigations it would appear that the amount of flour used in the dietary is on the increase. According to the Bureau of Labor, flour costs the average laborer about one tenth as much as all other foods combined, although he secures from it a proportionally larger amount of nutritive material than from any other food.
CHAPTER XI
BREAD AND BREAD MAKING
171. Leavened and Unleavened Bread.—To make unleavened bread the flour is moistened and worked into a stiff dough, which is then rolled thin, cut into various shapes, and baked, forming a brittle biscuit or cracker.
The process of making raised or leavened bread consists, in brief, of mixing the flour and water in proper proportions for a stiff dough, together with some salt for seasoning, and yeast (or other agent) for leavening. The moistened gluten of the flour forms a viscid, elastic, tenacious mass, which is thoroughly kneaded to distribute the yeast. The dough is then set in a warm place and the yeast begins to grow, or "work," causing alcoholic fermentation, with the production of carbon dioxid gas, which expands the dough, or causes it to "rise," thus rendering it porous. After the yeast has grown sufficiently, the dough is baked in a hot oven, where further fermentation is stopped because of destruction of the yeast by the heat, which also causes the gas to expand the loaf and, in addition, generates steam. The gas and steam inflate the tenacious dough and finally escape into the oven. At the same time the gluten of the dough is hardened by the heat, and the mass remains porous and light, while the outer surface is darkened and formed into a crust.