A, a neutral hydrogen atom;
B, a positive, and C, a negative hydrogen ion;
K, atomic nuclei; E, electrons.
As has just been indicated, Rutherford’s rule for the number of electrons is only an approximation. A Dutch physicist, van den Broek, conceived in the meantime the idea that the number of electrons in the atom of an element is equal to its order number in the periodic table (its “atomic number,” as it is now called). Especially through a systematic investigation of the X-ray spectra characteristic of the different elements this has proved to be the correct rule. In fact, using Bragg’s reflection method of X-rays from crystal surfaces ([cf. p. 54]), the Englishman, Moseley, made in 1914 the far-reaching discovery that these spectra possess an exceptionally simple structure, which made it possible in a simple way to attach an order number to each element ([given on p. 23]). On the basis of Bohr’s theory, established a year before, it could be directly proved that this order number must be identical with the number of positive elementary charges on the nucleus.
The number which formerly indicated simply the position of an element in the periodic system has thus obtained a profound physical significance, and in comparison the atomic weight has come to have but a secondary meaning. The inversion of argon and potassium in the periodic system [(mentioned on p. 21]), which seemed to be an exception to the regularity displayed by the system as a whole, obtains an easy explanation on the van den Broek rule; for to explain the inversion we need only assume that potassium has one electron more than argon, though its atomic weight is less than that of argon. We see at once that the atomic weight and number of electrons (or what is the same thing—the nuclear charge) are not directly correlated to each other. And since the periodic system based on the atomic number represents the correct arrangement of the elements according to their respective properties (especially their chemical properties), we are led naturally to the conclusion that it is the atomic number and not the atomic weight that determines chemical characteristics.
The conception of the relatively great importance of the atomic number as compared with the atomic weight has in recent years received overwhelming support from the researches of Soddy, Fajans, Russell, Hevesy and others who have discovered the existence of so-called isotope elements (from the Greek isos = same, and topos = place), substances with different nuclear masses (atomic weights) and different radioactive properties (if there are any), but with the same nuclear charge, the same number of electrons and, consequently, occupying the same place in the periodic system. Two such isotopes are practically equivalent in all their chemical properties as well as in most of their physical characteristics. One of the oldest examples of isotopes is provided by ordinary lead with the atomic weight 207·2 and the substance found in pitchblende with the atomic weight 206, but identical, chemically, with ordinary lead. This latter form of lead has already been [referred to on p. 79] as the end product of radioactive disintegrations, and hence it is sometimes called radium lead.
By his investigations of canal rays the English physicist Aston has just recently shown that many substances which have always been assumed to be simple elements, are in reality mixtures of isotopes. The atomic weight of chlorine determined in the usual way is 35·5, but in the discharge tube two kinds of chlorine atoms appear, having atomic weights 35 and 37 respectively; and it must be assumed that these two kinds of chlorine are present in all the compounds of chlorine known on the earth in the ratio of, roughly, three to one. To separate such mixtures into their constituent parts is extremely difficult, precisely because the constituents have identical properties apart from a small difference in density, which stands in direct connection with the atomic weight. Such a separation was first carried out successfully by the Danish chemist, Brønsted, in collaboration with the Hungarian chemist, Hevesy (1921). These two scientists were able to separate a large quantity of mercury of density 13·5955 into two portions of slightly different densities. All the different isotopes of which mercury is a mixture were, indeed, not wholly separated; they were represented in the two portions in different proportions. Thus, in one of the first attempts, the density of the one part was 13·5986 and of the other 13·5920 (at 0° C).
It is a perfectly reasonable supposition that it is the electron system which determines the external properties of the atom, that is, those properties which depend on the interplay of two or more atoms. For the electron, rotating about the nucleus at a considerable distance, separates, so to speak, the nucleus from the surrounding space, and must therefore be assumed to be the organ which connects the atom with the rest of the universe. One might also expect the structure of the electron system to depend wholly on the nuclear charge, i.e. on the atomic number and not on the mass of the nucleus, since it is the nuclear electrical attraction which holds the electrons in their orbits and not the relatively insignificant gravitational attraction.
It thus becomes intelligible that the properties of the elements can be divided into two sharply defined classes, namely: (1) properties of the nucleus, and (2) properties of the electron system in the atom. The credit for first recognizing the sharp distinction between these two classes, a distinction fundamental for a detailed study of the atom, is due to Niels Bohr.
The properties of the nucleus determine—(a) the radioactive processes, or explosions of the nucleus, and related processes; (b) collisions, where two nuclei approach extremely near to each other; and (c) weight which, as mentioned above, stands in direct connection with atomic weight. The properties of the electron system are, on the other hand, the determining factors in all other physical and chemical activities, and, as has been stated, are functions, we may say, of the atomic number of the given element. The Bohr theory may be said to concern itself with the chemical and physical properties of the atom with the exception of those which have to do with the nucleus. We shall consequently devote our attention in the next chapters to the electron system. But before turning to this we shall dwell a little further upon the atomic nucleus.
The Structure of the Nucleus.
That the nucleus is not an elementary indivisible particle but a system of particles, is clearly shown by the radioactive processes in which α-particles and β-particles (electrons) are shot out of the nuclei of radioactive elements. Bohr was the first to see clearly that not only the α-particles emitted in such cases come from the nucleus, but that the β-particles also have their source there. There is now no doubt that, in addition to the outer electrons of the atom, which are the determining factor in the atomic number, there must also be, in the radioactive substances at any rate, special nuclear electrons which lead a more hidden existence in the interior of the nucleus. One can easily understand that isotopes may result as products of radioactive disintegration. For example, let us suppose that a nucleus emits first an α-particle (i.e. a helium nucleus with two positive charges), and thereafter sends out two electrons, each with its negative charge, in two new disintegrations. The nuclear charge in the resultant atom will then obviously be the same as before, because the loss of the two electrons exactly neutralizes that of the α-particle. But the atomic weight will be diminished by four units (i.e. the weight of the helium nucleus, remembering also that the electrons have but very negligible masses). Among the radioactive substances are recognized many examples of isotope elements, with atomic weights differing precisely by four. The radioactive element uranium is the element with the greatest atomic weight (238), and atomic number (92), and consequently with the greatest nuclear charge. Almost all the other radioactive substances are those with high atomic numbers in the periodic system. The cause of radioactivity must be sought in the hypothesis that the nuclei of the radioactive elements are very complicated systems with small stability, and therefore break down rather easily into less complicated and more stable systems with the emission of some of their constituent particles; the corpuscular rays thus produced possess a considerable amount of kinetic energy.