The Theories of Modern Physics
Meaning of Physical Theories.—The laity are struck to see how ephemeral scientific theories are. After some years of prosperity, they see them successively abandoned; they see ruins accumulate upon ruins; they foresee that the theories fashionable to-day will shortly succumb in their turn and hence they conclude that these are absolutely idle. This is what they call the bankruptcy of science.
Their skepticism is superficial; they give no account to themselves of the aim and the rôle of scientific theories; otherwise they would comprehend that the ruins may still be good for something.
No theory seemed more solid than that of Fresnel which attributed light to motions of the ether. Yet now Maxwell's is preferred. Does this mean the work of Fresnel was in vain? No, because the aim of Fresnel was not to find out whether there is really an ether, whether it is or is not formed of atoms, whether these atoms really move in this or that sense; his object was to foresee optical phenomena.
Now, Fresnel's theory always permits of this, to-day as well as before Maxwell. The differential equations are always true; they can always be integrated by the same procedures and the results of this integration always retain their value.
And let no one say that thus we reduce physical theories to the rôle of mere practical recipes; these equations express relations, and if the equations remain true it is because these relations preserve their reality. They teach us, now as then, that there is such and such a relation between some thing and some other thing; only this something formerly we called motion; we now call it electric current. But these appellations were only images substituted for the real objects which nature will eternally hide from us. The true relations between these real objects are the only reality we can attain to, and the only condition is that the same relations exist between these objects as between the images by which we are forced to replace them. If these relations are known to us, what matter if we deem it convenient to replace one image by another.
That some periodic phenomenon (an electric oscillation, for instance) is really due to the vibration of some atom which, acting like a pendulum, really moves in this or that sense, is neither certain nor interesting. But that between electric oscillation, the motion of the pendulum and all periodic phenomena there exists a close relationship which corresponds to a profound reality; that this relationship, this similitude, or rather this parallelism extends into details; that it is a consequence of more general principles, that of energy and that of least action; this is what we can affirm; this is the truth which will always remain the same under all the costumes in which we may deem it useful to deck it out.
Numerous theories of dispersion have been proposed; the first was imperfect and contained only a small part of truth. Afterwards came that of Helmholtz; then it was modified in various ways, and its author himself imagined another founded on the principles of Maxwell. But, what is remarkable, all the scientists who came after Helmholtz reached the same equations, starting from points of departure in appearance very widely separated. I will venture to say these theories are all true at the same time, not only because they make us foresee the same phenomena, but because they put in evidence a true relation, that of absorption and anomalous dispersion. What is true in the premises of these theories is what is common to all the authors; this is the affirmation of this or that relation between certain things which some call by one name, others by another.
The kinetic theory of gases has given rise to many objections, which we could hardly answer if we pretended to see in it the absolute truth. But all these objections will not preclude its having been useful, and particularly so in revealing to us a relation true and but for it profoundly hidden, that of the gaseous pressure and the osmotic pressure. In this sense, then, it may be said to be true.
When a physicist finds a contradiction between two theories equally dear to him, he sometimes says: "We will not bother about that, but hold firmly the two ends of the chain, though the intermediate links are hidden from us." This argument of an embarrassed theologian would be ridiculous if it were necessary to attribute to physical theories the sense the laity give them. In case of contradiction, one of them at least must then be regarded as false. It is no longer the same if in them be sought only what should be sought. May be they both express true relations and the contradiction is only in the images wherewith we have clothed the reality.