These glacial deposits are found in Britain as far south as the Thames, over the whole of Northern Europe, in all the more elevated portions of Southern and Central Europe, and over the whole of North America, as far south as the 39th parallel. They generally occur as sands, clays, and gravels, spread in widely-extended sheets over all the geological formations alike, except the most recent, and are commonly spoken of under the general term of "Glacial drift." They vary much in their exact nature in different districts, but they universally consist of one, or all, of the following members:—
1. Unstratified clays, or loams, containing numerous angular or sub-angular blocks of stone, which have often been transported for a greater or less distance from their parent rock, and which often exhibit polished, grooved, or striated surfaces. These beds are what is called Boulder-clay, or Till.
2. Sands, gravels, and clays, often more or less regularly stratified, but containing erratic blocks, often of large size, and with their edges unworn, derived from considerable distances from the place where they are now found. In these beds it is not at all uncommon to find fossil shells; and these, though of existing species, are generally of an Arctic character, comprising a greater or less number of forms which are now exclusively found in the icy waters of the Arctic seas. These beds are often spoken of as "Stratified Drift."
3. Stratified sands and gravels, in which the pebbles are worn and rounded, and which have been produced by a rearrangement of ordinary glacial beds by the sea. These beds are commonly known as "Drift-gravels," or "Regenerated Drift".
Some of the last-mentioned of these are doubtless post-glacial; but, in the absence of fossils, it is often impossible to arrive at a positive opinion as to the precise age of superficial accumulations of this nature. It is also the opinion of high authorities that a considerable number of the so-called "cave-deposits," with the bones of extinct Mammals, truly belong to the Glacial period, being formed during warm intervals when the severity of the Arctic cold had become relaxed. It is further believed that some, at any rate, of the so-called "high-level" river-gravels and "brick-earths" have likewise been deposited during mild or warm intervals in the great age of ice; and in two or three instances this has apparently been demonstrated—deposits of this nature, with the bones of extinct animals and the implements of man, having been shown to be overlaid by true Boulder-clay.
The fossils of the undoubted Glacial deposits are principally shells, which are found in great numbers in certain localities, sometimes with Foraminifera, the bivalved cases of Ostracode Crustaceans, &c. Whilst some of the shells of the "Drift" are such as now live in the seas of temperate regions, others, as previously remarked, are such as are now only known to live in the seas of high latitudes; and these therefore afford unquestionable evidence of cold conditions. Amongst these Arctic forms of shells which characterise the Glacial beds may be mentioned Pecten Islandicus (fig. 254),
Fig. 254.—Left valve of Pecten Islandicus, Glacial and Recent. Pecten Grœnlandicus, Scalaria Grœnlandica, Leda truncata, Astarte borealis, Tellina proxima, Nattra clausa, &c.
III. POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS.—As the intense cold of the Glacial period became gradually mitigated, and temperate conditions of climate were once more re-established, various deposits were formed in the northern hemisphere, which are found to contain the remains of extinct Mammals, and which, therefore, are clearly of Post-Pliocene age. To these deposits the general name of Post-Glacial formations is given; but it is obvious that, from the nature of the case, and with our present limited knowledge, we cannot draw a rigid line of demarcation between the deposits formed towards the close of the Glacial period, or during warm "interglacial" periods, and those laid down after the ice had fairly disappeared. Indeed it is extremely improbable that any such rigid line of demarcation should ever have existed; and it is far more likely that the Glacial and Post-Glacial periods, and their corresponding deposits, shade into one another by an imperceptible gradation. Accepting this reservation, we may group together, under the general head of "Post-Glacial Deposits," most of the so-called "Valley-gravels," "Brick-earths," and "Cave-deposits," together with some "raised beaches" and various deposits of peat. Though not strictly within the compass of this work, a few words may be said here as to the origin and mode of formation of the Brick-earths, Valley-gravels, and Cave-deposits, as the subject will thus be rendered more clearly intelligible.
Every river produces at the present day beds of fine mud and loam, and accumulations of gravel, which it deposits at various parts of its course—the gravel generally occupying the lowest position, and the finer sands and mud coming above. Numerous deposits of a similar nature are found in most countries in various localities, and at various heights above the present channels of our rivers. Many of these fluviatile (Lat. fluvius, a river) deposits consist of fine loam, worked for brick-making, and known as "Brick-earths;" and they have yielded the remains of numerous extinct Mammals, of which the Mammoth (Elephas primigenius) is the most abundant. In the valley of the Rhine these fluviatile loams (known as "Loess") attain a thickness of several hundred feet, and contain land and fresh-water shells of existing species. With these occur the remains of Mammals, such as the Mammoth and Woolly Rhinoceros. Many of these Brick-earths are undoubtedly Post-Glacial, but others seem to be clearly "inter-glacial;" and instances have recently been brought forward in which deposits of Brick-earth containing bones and shells of fresh-water Molluscs have been found to be overlaid by regular unstratified boulder-clay.