An Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Christian Church

by Henry Charles Lea

Philadelphia, December, 1883.

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CONTENTS.

A. D.		PAGE
	Influence of the church on modern civilization	[17]
	Effect of celibacy in moulding its destiny	[19]
[I].—ASCETICISM.
	Character of early Judaism	[21]
	Oriental and Hellenic influences	[23]
	Growth of asceticism	[25]
	Pauline Christianity	[26]
	Admission that celibacy is of post-apostolic origin	[28]
[II].—THE ANTE-NICENE CHURCH.
	Early ascetic tendencies	[31]
	Exaggerated in the heresies	[33]
	Influence of Buddhism	[34]
	Objection to second marriages	[36]
c. 150	“Digami” rejected from the ministry	[37]
	Application of the Levitical rule	[38]
	Growth of asceticism—self-mutilation	[40]
	Vows of virginity and their results	[41]
c. 280	Influence of Manichæism	[43]
	Condemnation of marriage	[45]
305	First injunction of celibacy, by the Council of Elvira	[50]
314	Disregarded elsewhere	[51]
[III].—THE COUNCIL OF NICÆA.
	Growing centralization of the church	[52]
325	The first general council	[53]
	It prohibits the residence of suspected women	[53]
	The story of Paphnutius	[56]
325-350	Married priests not as yet interfered with	[58]
[IV].—LEGISLATION.
348-400	Enforcement of voluntary vows	[59]
	Prohibition of female ministry	[60]
362	Reaction—the Council of Gangra	[61]
384	Celibacy adopted by the Latin church	[64]
385	Decretal of Siricius	[65]
[V].—ENFORCEMENT OF CELIBACY.
	Resistance to enforced asceticism	[67]
390	Jovinian	[69]
404	Vigilantius	[70]
390-419	The church of Africa yields	[73]
401	Compromise of the Cis-Alpine church	[75]
	Popular assistance in enforcing celibacy	[77]
	Effect of enforced celibacy on clerical morals	[78]
	General demoralization of society	[81]
[VI].—THE EASTERN CHURCH.
	Divergence between the East and the West	[83]
381	Compulsory celibacy unknown in the East	[84]
400	Council of Constantinople—Antony of Ephesus—Synesius	[85]
430	First enforcement of celibacy in Thessaly	[86]
	Celibacy not obligatory	[86]
528-548	Legislation of Justinian	[86]
680	The Quinisext in Trullo—Discipline unchanged	[88]
900	Final legislation of Leo the Philosopher	[90]
	The Nestorians—clerical marriage permitted	[91]
	The Abyssinian church	[92]
[VII].—MONACHISM.
	Buddhist model of monachism	[94]
	Apostolic order of widows	[96]
	Devotees in the primitive church—no vows irrevocable	[97]
250-285	Paul the Thebæan and St. Antony	[97]
350-400	Increase of monachism	[98]
	Early systems—vows not irrevocable	[101]
	Greater strictness required of female devotees	[103]
c. 400	Marriages of nuns still valid	[104]
450-458	Conflicting legislation	[105]
	Strictness of the Eastern church—Political necessity of controlling monachism	[106]
390-456	Monks confined to their convents	[108]
532-545	Justinian renders monastic vows irrevocable	[108]
	Disorders of Western monachism	[109]
528	St. Benedict of Nursia—vows not irrevocable under his rule	[111]
590-604	Gregory I. enforces the inviolability of vows	[113]
	Continued irregularities of monachism	[115]
[VIII].—THE BARBARIANS.
	The Church and the Barbarians	[117]
	The Merovingian bishops	[118]
	The Spanish Arians	[120]
589-711	Neglect of discipline in Spain	[121]
557-580	State of discipline in Italy	[122]
	Dilapidation of ecclesiastical property	[123]
590-604	Reforms of Gregory the Great	[123]
[IX].—THE CARLOVINGIANS.
	Demoralization of the VII. and VIII. centuries	[126]
	Reorganizing efforts of the Carlovingians	[128]
742-755	Labors of St. Boniface	[131]
	Resistance of the married clergy	[132]
755	Pepin-le-Bref undertakes the reform	[134]
	Sacerdotal celibacy reëstablished	[135]
	Reforms of Charlemagne and Louis-le-Débonnaire—Their inefficiency	[135]
840-912	Increasing demoralization under the later Carlovingians	[139]
874	Legal procedures prescribed by Hincmar	[140]
893	Sacerdotal marriage resumed	[142]
[X].—THE TENTH CENTURY.
	Barbarism of the tenth century—Debasement of the papacy	[144]
	Tendency to hereditary benefices—Dilapidation of church property	[145]
938	Leo VII. vainly prohibits sacerdotal marriage	[148]
952	It is defended by St. Ulric of Augsburg	[153]
925-967	Unsuccessfully resisted by Ratherius of Verona and Atto of Vercelli	[150]
	Opposing influences among prelates	[152]
	Relaxation of the canons	[154]
942-1054	Three Archbishops of Rouen	[155]
	Indifference of Silvester II.	[157]
	Celibacy practically obsolete	[158]
[XI].—SAXON ENGLAND.
	Corruption of the ancient British church	[159]
	Asceticism of the Irish and Scottish churches	[160]
597	Celibacy introduced among the Saxons by St. Augustin	[161]
	Disorders in the Saxon nunneries	[163]
747, 787	Councils of Clovesho and Chelsea	[164]
	Neglect of discipline in the ninth and tenth centuries	[165]
964	St. Dunstan undertakes a reformation	[166]
964-974	Energy of Edgar the Pacific	[168]
975	Reaction after the death of Edgar	[170]
1006	Failure of Dunstan’s reforms	[171]
1009	Council of Enham—Sacerdotal polygamy	[172]
1032	Legislation of Cnut	[173]
	Sacerdotal marriage established	[175]
[XII].—PETER DAMIANI.
1022	Council of Pavia—Efforts to restore discipline	[178]
1031	Council of Bourges	[179]
	Clerical marriage and profligacy	[180]
	Revival of asceticism—San Giovanni Gualberto	[183]
1046	Henry III. undertakes the reformation of the church—Clement II.	[184]
	St. Peter Damiani	[185]
1049	Leo IX.	[187]
	Damiani’s Liber Gomorrhianus	[188]
	Reformatory efforts of Leo—Councils of Rheims and Mainz	[188]
1051-1053	Attempts to reform the Italian clergy	[189]
	Failure of the Reformation	[190]
1058	The Papacy independent—Damiani and Hildebrand	[192]
1059	Appeal to the laity for assistance	[194]
1059	Council of Melfi—Deposition of Bishop of Trani	[197]
1060	Damiani endeavors to reform the prelates	[198]
	The persecuted clergy organize resistance	[199]
1061	Schismatic election of Cadalus	[200]
	He is supported by the married clergy	[201]
1063	Renewed efforts of Alexander II. and Damiani	[202]
	Their failure	[204]
[XIII].—MILAN.
	Milan the centre of Manichæism	[207]
1045	Election of an archbishop—four disappointed competitors	[209]
	Marriage universal among Milanese clergy	[210]
	Landolfo and Arialdo excite the people	[211]
1056	Popular tumults—Plunder of the clergy	[212]
1058	The Synod of Fontaneto defends the married priests	[212]
	A furious civil war results	[213]
1059	Damiani obtains the submission of the clergy	[213]
1061	Milan embraces the party of Cadalus	[215]
	Death of Landolfo—Erlembaldo takes his place	[215]
1062	His success	[216]
1066	Excommunication of Archbishop Guido—Martyrdom of Arialdo	[216]
1067	Compromise and temporary truce	[217]
1069	Guido forced to resign—War between Gotefridoand Azzo for the succession	[218]
1075	Death of Erlembaldo—Tedaldo archbishop in spite of Gregory VII.	[219]
	Influence of celibacy on the struggle	[220]
1093-1095	Triumph of sacerdotalism	[221]
	Similar trouble throughout Tuscany	[222]
[XIV].—HILDEBRAND.
1073	Election of Gregory VII.—His character	[223]
	Necessity of celibacy to his scheme of theocratic supremacy	[225]
1074	Synod of Rome—Repetition of previous canons	[227]
	Attempts to enforce them throughout Europe—Resistance of the clergy	[228]
	Three bishops—Otho of Constance—Altmann of Passau—Siegfrid of Mainz	[229]
1074	Gregory appeals to the laity	[232]
	Resultant persecution of the clergy	[234]
1077	Violent resistance of the married clergy	[236]
	Political complications	[237]
1085	Papalists and Imperialists both condemn sacerdotal marriage	[239]
[XV].—CENTRAL EUROPE.
	Depression of the Catholic party—Sacerdotal marriage connived at	[241]
1089	Urban II. renews the persecution	[242]
1094	Contumacy of the German priesthood	[243]
1105	Deposition of Henry IV.—Germany restored to Catholic unity	[244]
1118-1175	Sacerdotal marriage nevertheless common	[245]
1092-1257	First introduction of celibacy in Hungary	[248]
1197-1279	Introduction of celibacy in Poland	[251]
1213-1248	Disregard of the canons in Sweden	[252]
1117-1266	Their enforcement in Denmark	[253]
1219-1271	Their neglect in Friesland	[254]
[XVI].—FRANCE.
1056-1064	Efforts to introduce sacerdotal celibacy	[255]
1074-1078	Contumacy of the clergy	[256]
1080	William the Conqueror intervenes—First allusion to licenses to sin	[257]
	Successful resistance of the Norman and Breton clergy	[258]
1076-1094	Troubles in Flanders	[259]
	Confusion caused by the attempted reform	[262]
1095	Council of Clermont—Its canons disregarded	[263]
	Condition of the monastic establishments	[264]
	Hereditary transmission of benefices	[265]
	Miracles invoked in aid of the reform	[266]
1119	Calixtus II. commences a new reform	[267]
	Resistance of the Norman priesthood	[268]
	Abelard and Heloise—Standard of morals erected by the church	[269]
1212	Continuance of clerical marriage	[270]
[XVII].—NORMAN ENGLAND.
1066	Canons not enforced by William I.	[271]
1076	First effort made by the Council of Winchester	[272]
1102	St. Anselm undertakes the reform—Council of London	[273]
	Resistance of the priests—Failure of the movement	[275]
1104	Henry I. uses the reform as a financial expedient	[276]
1108	He enforces outward obedience	[277]
1126	Stubborn contumacy of the priesthood	[279]
1129	Henry again speculates on clerical immorality	[280]
1138-1171	Disorders of the English church	[281]
	Consorts of priests no longer termed wives	[283]
1208	King John discovers their financial value	[283]
	Venality of the ecclesiastical officials	[284]
	“Focariæ” still universal	[285]
1215	Indignation of the clergy at the reforms of Innocent III.	[286]
1237	Cardinal Otto and the Council of London	[288]
	Popular poems concerning the reform	[289]
1250-1268	Gradual extinction of clerical marriage in England	[290]
	Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln	[292]
	Fruitless legislation against concubinage	[293]
12th-15th C.	Sacerdotal marriage in Wales	[293]
[XVIII].—IRELAND AND SCOTLAND.
	Degradation of the Irish church prior to the twelfth century	[295]
1130-1149	Reforms of St. Malachi—Influence of Rome	[296]
	Monastic character of the reformed church	[297]
1186-1320	Condition of the church in the English Pale	[298]
	Degeneration of the Scottish Culdees	[299]
1124-1153	David I. reforms the church and reestablishes celibacy	[300]
1225-1268	Immorality of the Scottish clergy	[301]
[XIX].—SPAIN.
11th Cent.	Independent barbarism of the Spanish church—Marriage universal	[302]
1068-1080	Encroachments of Rome—sacerdotal marriage condemned	[303]
1101-1129	Reforms of Diego Gelmirez—Marriage not interfered with	[305]
1260	Legislation of Alfonso the Wise—Concubinage universal	[308]
1323	Concubinage organized as a safeguard by the laity	[310]
	Corruption throughout the middle ages	[311]
[XX].—GENERAL LEGISLATION.
1123	Marriage now first dissolved by Holy Orders	[313]
1130	The innovation not as yet enforced	[314]
1139	Sacerdotal marriage formally declared void by the Second Council of Lateran	[315]
1148	Confirmed by the Council of Rheims—Denied by Gratian	[316]
1150	The new doctrine receives no obedience	[318]
1158-1181	Alexander III. insists upon it	[319]
	But excepts immoral ecclesiastics	[320]
	Conflict of rules and exceptions	[322]
1206-1255	Case of Bossaert d’Avesnes	[323]
	Alexander III. proposes to restore clerical marriage	[325]
1187-1198	Efforts of the popes to enforce the canons	[326]
1215	Fourth Council of Lateran—Triumph of Sacerdotalism	[327]
[XXI].—RESULTS.
	Recognition of the obligation of celibacy	[330]
	Increase of immorality	[331]
13th-15th C.	Fruitless attempts to restrain corruption	[333]
1231	Recognition of children of ecclesiastics	[335]
1225-1416	Efforts to restrict hereditary transmission	[338]
1317	Recognition of concubinage	[339]
	Successful resistance to reform	[340]
12th-15th C.	Morals of the papal court	[341]
	Influence on society of sacerdotal celibacy	[346]
	Influence of monachism	[357]
[XXII].—THE MILITARY ORDERS.
1120	Knights of St. John vowed to celibacy	[362]
1128	Knights of the Temple vowed to celibacy	[362]
1175	Knights of St. James of the Sword allowed to marry	[363]
1441	Marriage permitted to the Order of Calatrava	[364]
1496	And to the Orders of Avis and Jesus Christ	[365]
1167	Order of St. Michael allowed to marry once	[365]
	Reforms attempted in the Order of St. John	[366]
	The Teutonic Knights	[366]
[XXIII].—THE HERESIES.
	Asceticism of mediæval Manichæism	[367]
	Difficulty of combating it	[369]
1146	Antisacerdotalism—The Petrobrusians and Henricians	[370]
1148	Éon de l’Étoile	[371]
c. 1160	The Waldenses	[372]
1294	Antisacerdotalism of the Franciscans—The Fraticelli	[375]
1341	John of Pirna	[378]
1377	Wickliffe	[378]
1394	The Lollards denounce clerical celibacy	[381]
1415-1438	The Hussites—They maintain ascetic celibacy	[382]
1411-1414	Brethren of the Cross—Men of Intelligence	[385]
1488-1498	Savonarola	[386]
[XXIV].—THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
	Demoralization of the sacerdotal body	[388]
1418	Futile efforts of the Council of Constance	[390]
1422	Efforts of Martin V.	[392]
	Undiminished corruption and symptoms of revolt	[393]
1435	The Council of Bâle attempts a reform	[395]
	Impotence of the Basilian canons—Venality of the papal court	[396]
1484-1500	Condition of the church in Italy, France, England, Spain, Germany, and Hungary	[398]
1496	Relaxation of monastic discipline	[402]
1476	John of Nicklaushausen	[405]
	Sacerdotal marriage advocated as a remedy	[405]
1479	John of Oberwesel	[407]
1485	Heresy of Jean Laillier	[408]
[XXV].—THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY.
	Irreverential spirit of the sixteenth century	[410]
1510	Complaints of the Germans against the church	[411]
	Immobility of the church	[412]
	Popular movement—Luther and Erasmus	[413]
1518	Official opposition to the abuses of the church	[416]
1517-1520	Luther neglects the question of celibacy—his gradual progress	[417]
1521	First examples of sacerdotal marriage	[419]
	Approved by Carlostadt—Disapproved by Luther	[419]
1522	Zwingli demands sacerdotal marriage—Luther adopts it	[421]
1524	Efforts of the church to repress the movement	[423]
	Popular approbation—Protection in high quarters	[424]
1523-1524	Emancipation of nuns and monks	[425]
1525	Marriage of Luther	[425]
	Causes of popular acquiescence in the change	[427]
	Extreme immorality of the clergy	[427]
	Admitted by the Catholics to justify heresy	[430]
1522-1526	Erasmus advocates clerical marriage	[432]
	Assistance from ambition of temporal princes	[434]
1530	Efforts at reunion—Confession of Augsburg	[435]
	Failure of reconciliation—League of Schmalkalden	[438]
	The Anabaptists	[438]
1532-1541	Partial toleration—Difficulties concerning the Abbey lands	[439]
1548	The Interim—Sacerdotal marriage tolerated	[441]
1552	The Reformation established by the Transaction of Passau	[443]
[XXVI].—THE ANGLICAN CHURCH.
	Conservative tendencies of England	[444]
1500-1523	John Colet and Sir Thomas More	[445]
1524	Difficulties of the situation—Wolsey undertakes the destruction of monachism	[447]
1528	General suppression of the smaller houses	[448]
1532	Henry VIII.’s quarrel with Rome	[449]
1535	General visitation of monasteries, and suppression of most of them	[451]
	Popular opinions—The Beggars’ Petition	[453]
1536	Popular discontent—The Pilgrimage of Grace	[455]
1537-1546	Final suppression of the religious houses	[456]
	Fate of their inmates	[460]
1535-1541	Irish monastic establishments destroyed	[461]
	Henry still insists on celibacy	[461]
	Efforts to procure its relaxation	[463]
1537	Uncertainty of the subject in the public mind	[465]
1539	Henry’s firmness—Act of the Six Articles	[466]
	Persecution of the married clergy	[469]
1540	Modification of the Six Articles	[471]
1547	Accession of Edward VI.—Repeal of the Six Articles	[472]
1548-1549	Full liberty of marriage accorded to the clergy	[473]
	Armed opposition of the people	[474]
1552	Adoption of the Forty-two Articles	[475]
	Difficulty of removing popular convictions	[476]
1553	Accession of Queen Mary—Legislation of Edward repealed	[477]
1554	The married clergy separated and deprived	[478]
	Suffering of the clergy in consequence	[480]
	England reconciled to Rome—Church lands not recalled	[482]
1555	Cardinal Pole’s Legatine Constitutions	[483]
1557	More stringent legislation required—Revival of the old troubles	[485]
1558	Accession of Queen Elizabeth	[486]
1559	Delay in authorizing marriage—Uncertainty of the married clergy	[487]
	Elizabeth yields, but imposes degrading restrictions on clerical marriage	[488]
1563	The Thirty-nine Articles—Increased emphasis of permission to marry	[490]
	Elizabeth maintains her prejudices	[491]
	Disrepute of sacerdotal marriage—Evil effects on the Anglican clergy	[494]
[XXVII].—CALVINISM.
1559-1640	The Huguenot Churches	[498]
	The Reformation in Scotland	[501]
	Corruption of the Scottish church in the sixteenth century	[501]
1542-1559	Efforts at internal reform—their fruitlessness	[504]
	Marriage assumed as a matter of course by the Protestants	[506]
	Temporal motives assisting the Reformation	[507]
	Poverty of the Scottish church establishment	[508]
	Influence of celibacy on the struggle	[509]
1560	No formal recognition of clerical marriage thought necessary	[512]
[XXVIII].—THE COUNCIL OF TRENT.
1524-1536	Efforts at internal reform	[514]
	Universal demand for a general council—Convoked at Mantua in 1536	[519]
1542-1547	Assembles at Trent—it labors to separate, not to reunite the churches	[520]
1551-1552	Reassembles at Trent—is again broken up	[521]
1562	Again assembles for the last time	[522]
1536	Paul III. essays an internal reform without result	[522]
1548	Charles V. tries to reform the German church	[524]
1548-1551	Local reformatory synods—their failure	[525]
1560	Clerical marriage demanded as a last resort	[529]
	Clerical corruption urged as the reason	[530]
1563	The French court joins in the demand	[533]
1560	The question prejudged	[533]
1563	The council makes celibacy a point of faith	[536]
	Attempts a reformation	[538]
1563-1564	The German princes continue their efforts	[539]
	Essays of Cassander and Wicelius	[542]
1564	Maximilian II. renews the attempt	[543]
	His requests peremptorily rejected	[544]
[XXIX].—THE POST-TRIDENTINE CHURCH.
	Reception of the Council of Trent except in France	[546]
1566-1572	Pius V. endeavors to effect a reform	[547]
1568-1570	Labors of St. Charles Borromeo at Milan	[550]
1565-1597	Reforms vainly attempted by Italian councils	[552]
1569-1668	Condition of the church in Central Europe	[553]
	Marriage still practised until 1628	[556]
	Clerical immorality still a justification of heresy	[556]
1560-1624	Condition of the church in France	[558]
	The residence of women conceded	[561]
	The church in the Spanish Colonies	[562]
	Abuse of the confessional	[566]
	Abuse of the power of absolution	[575]
	Influence of the casuistic spirit	[578]
[XXX].—THE CHURCH AND THE REVOLUTION.
	Sacerdotal marriage obsolete—Grandier, Du Pin, Bossuet	[581]
1758-1800	The eighteenth century—Controversy reopened	[582]
1783	Joseph II. proposes to permit sacerdotal marriage	[583]
1760-1787	Clerical immorality undiminished	[585]
1789	The French Revolution	[588]
1789-1790	Confiscation of church property—Suppression of monachism	[589]
1791	Celibacy deprived of legal protection—Marriage of priests	[590]
1793	Marriage becomes a test of good citizenship	[592]
	Persecution of the unmarried clergy	[592]
	Resistance of the great body of the clergy	[594]
1795-1797	Married clergy repudiated by their bishops	[595]
1801	Celibacy restored by the Concordat	[595]
1801-1807	Clerical marriage continues—Napoleon decides against it	[597]
[XXXI].—THE CHURCH OF TO-DAY.
1815-1883	Vacillating policy in France as to clerical marriage	[599]
1821-1866	Various movements in favor of clerical marriage	[601]
	Immobility of the church	[603]
1878	The Old Catholics adopt clerical marriage	[604]
	Civil marriage laws opposed by the church	[605]
	Celibacy not likely to be disturbed	[607]
1820-1867	Suppression of monastic orders	[608]
	Vigor and improvement of modern monachism	[611]
	Its influence in the field of education	[616]
1880	Suppression of unauthorized orders in France	[621]
	Influence of celibacy on clerical morality	[624]
	Its influence on the social organization	[638]
[NOTE.]
	On Celibacy as a matter of faith under the Council of Trent	[640]
[INDEX.]

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SACERDOTAL CELIBACY.

The Latin church is the great fact which dominates the history of modern civilization. All other agencies which moulded the destinies of mediæval Europe were comparatively isolated or sporadic in their manifestations. Thus in one place we may trace the beneficent influence of commerce at work, in another the turbulent energy of the rising Third Estate; the mortal contests of the feudal powers with each other and with progress are waged in detached and convulsive struggles; chivalry casts only occasional and evanescent flashes of light amid the darkness of military barbarism; literature seeks to gain support from any power which will condescend to lend transitory aid to the plaything of the moment. Nowhere do we see combined effort, nowhere can we detect a pervading impulse, irrespective of locality or of circumstance, save in the imposing machinery of the church establishment. This meets us at every point, and in every age, and in every sphere of action. In the dim solitude of the cloister, the monk is training the minds which are to mould the destinies of the period, while his roof is the refuge of the desolate and the home of the stranger. In the tribunal, the priest is wrestling with the baron, and is extending his more humane and equitable code over a jurisdiction subjected to the caprices of feudal or customary law, as applied by a class of ignorant and arbitrary tyrants. In the royal palace, the hand of the ecclesiastic, visible or invisible, is guiding the helm of state, regulating the policy of nations, and converting the brute force of chivalry into the supple instrument of his will. In Central Europe, lordly prelates, with the temporal power and possessions of the highest princes, joined to the exclusive pretensions of the church, make war and peace, and are sovereign in all but name, owing no allegiance save to Emperors whom they elect and Popes whose cause they share. Far above all, the successor of St. Peter from his pontifical throne claims the whole of Europe as his empire, and dictates terms to kings who crouch under his reproof, or are crushed in the vain effort of rebellion. At the other extremity of society, the humble minister of the altar, with his delegated power over heaven and hell, wields in cottage as in castle an authority hardly less potent, and sways the minds of the faithful with his right to implicit obedience. Even art offers a willing submission to the universal mistress, and seeks the embodiment of its noblest aspirations in the lofty poise of the cathedral spire, the rainbow glories of the painted window, and the stately rhythm of the solemn chant.

This vast fabric of ecclesiastical supremacy presents one of the most curious problems which the world’s history affords. A wide and absolute authority, deriving its force from moral power alone, marshalling no legions of its own in battle array, but permeating everything with its influence, walking unarmed through deadly strife, rising with renewed strength from every prostration, triumphing alike over the savage nature of the barbarian and the enervated apathy of the Roman tributary, blending discordant races and jarring nations into one great brotherhood of subjection—such was the Papal hierarchy, a marvel and a mystery. Well is it personified in Gregory VII., a fugitive from Rome, without a rood of ground to call him master, a rival Pope lording it in the Vatican, a triumphant Emperor vowed to internecine strife, yet issuing his commands as sternly and as proudly to prince and potentate as though he were the unquestioned suzerain of Europe, and listened to as humbly by three-fourths of Christendom. The man wasted away in the struggle; his death was but the accident of time: the church lived on, and marched to inevitable victory.

The investigations of the curious can hardly be deemed misapplied in analyzing the elements of this impalpable but irresistible power, and in examining the causes which have enabled it to preserve such unity of action amid such diversity of environment, presenting everywhere by turns a solid and united front to the opposing influences of barbarism and civilization. In detaching one of these elements from the group, and tracing out its successive vicissitudes, I may therefore be pardoned for thinking the subject of sufficient interest to warrant a minuteness of detail that would otherwise perhaps appear disproportionate.

The Janizaries of the Porte were Christian children, recruited by the most degrading tribute which tyrannical ingenuity has invented. Torn from their homes in infancy, every tie severed that bound them to the world around them; the past a blank, the future dependent solely upon the master above them; existence limited to the circle of their comrades, among whom they could rise, but whom they could never leave; such was the corps which bore down the bravest of the Christian chivalry and carried the standard of the Prophet in triumph to the walls of Vienna. Mastering at length their master, they wrung from him the privilege of marriage; and the class in becoming hereditary, with human hopes and fears disconnected with the one idea of their service, no longer presented the same invincible phalanx, and at last became terrible only to the effeminate denizens of the seraglio. The example is instructive, and it affords grounds for the assumption that the canon which bound all the active ministers of the church to perpetual celibacy, and thus created an impassable barrier between them and the outer world, was one of the efficient instruments in creating and consolidating both the temporal and spiritual power of the Roman hierarchy.