The Doctrine of Evolution: Its Basis and Its Scope

by Henry Edward Crampton

The evolution of the art of writing appears with equal clearness when we compare the texts of modern peoples with inscriptions found on ancient temples and monuments and tablets. Even races of the present day employ methods of communicating ideas by writing symbols that are counterparts of the earliest stages in the historic development of writing. An Eskimo describes the events of a journey by a series of little pictures representing himself in the act of doing various things. A simple outline of a man with one arm pointing to the body and the other pointing away indicates "I go." A circle denotes the island to which he goes. He sleeps there one night, and he tells this by drawing a figure with one hand over the eyes, indicating sleep, while the other hand has one finger upraised to specify a single night. The next day he goes further and he employs the first figure again. A second island is indicated, in this case with a dot in the center of the circle to show a house in which he sleeps two nights, as his figure with closed eyes and two fingers uplifted shows. He hunts the walrus, an outline of which is given alongside of his figure waving a spear in one hand; likewise he hunts with a bow and arrow, which is demonstrated by the same method. A rude drawing representing a boat with two upright lines for himself and another man with paddles in their hands gives a further account of his journey, and the final figure is the circle denoting the original island to which he returns.

Pictography, as this method of communicating ideas is called, is often highly developed among the American Indians. For example, a petition from a tribe of Chippewa Indians to the President of the United States asking for the possession of certain lakes near their reservation is a series of pictures of the sacred animals or "totems" which represent the several subtribes. Lines run from the hearts of the totem animals to the heart of the chief totem, while similar lines run from the eyes of the subsidiary totems to the eyes of the chief, and these indicate that all of the subtribes feel the same way about the matter and view it alike,—the sentiment is unanimous. From the chief totem run out two lines, one going to the picture of the desired object, while the other goes to the President, conveying the petition. Thus pictography, a method of writing that belongs to the childhood of races, may be made to communicate ideas of a strikingly complex nature.

The ancient and modern inscriptions of Asia, from the Red Sea to China, present many significant stages in the development of picture-writing. In earliest ages the men of Asia made actual drawings of particular objects, such as the sun, trees, and human figures; subsequently these became conventionalized to a certain degree, but even as late as 3000 B.C. the Akkadian script was still largely pictographic. From it originated the knife-point writing of Babylonian and Chaldean clay tablets, while among the peoples of Eastern Asia, who continued to draw their symbols, the transition to conventionalized pictures such as those made by the Chinaman was slower and less drastic.

In another line of evolution, the hieroglyphics of Egyptian tombs and monuments illustrate a most interesting intermediate condition of development. These inscriptions have been deciphered only since the discovery of the famous Rosetta stone-fragment, which bears portions of three identical texts written in hieroglyphics, in Greek, and in another series of symbols. The Egyptian used more or less formalized characters to represent certain sounds, while in addition to the group of such characters combined to make a word, the scribe drew a supplementary picture of the thing or act signified. For instance, xeftu means enemies, but the Egyptian graver added a picture of a kneeling bowman to avoid any possible misapprehension as to his meaning. The symbols denoting "to walk" are followed by a pair of legs; the setting sun is described not only by a word but also by its outline as it lies on the horizon. Here again one is struck by the similarity between a stage in the historic development of racial characteristics and a method employed at the present time to teach the immature minds of children that certain letters represent a particular object; in a kindergarten primer the sentence "see the rat and the cat" is accompanied by pictures of the animals specified, in true hieroglyphic simplicity.

Just as the child's mind develops so that the aid of the picture can be dispensed with, and the symbolic characters can be used in increasingly complex ways, in like manner the minds of men living in successive centuries have evolved. While an evolution of human conceptual processes in general is not necessarily implied by the evolution of the forms of written language, the former process is in part demonstrated by the latter in so far as the change from the writing of pictures to the use of conventional symbols involves an advance in human ideas of the interpretation and value of the symbols in question. A man of ancient times drew a tree to represent his conception of this object; in the writing of English we now use four letters to stand for the same object, and none of these symbols is in any way a replica of the tree. It is certainly obvious that some change in the mental association of symbol and object has been brought about, and to this extent there has been mental evolution.

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Passing now to other departments of human culture, we must deal in the next place with the basic "arts of life"; that is, the modes of conducting the necessary activities of every day. All men of all times, be they civilized or savage, are impelled like the brutes by their biological nature to seek food and to repel their foes. The rough stone club and ax were fashioned by the first savage men, when diminishing physical prowess placed them at a disadvantage in the competition with stronger animals. Smoother and more efficient weapons were made by the hordes of their more advanced descendants, some of whom remained in the mental and cultural condition of the stone age like the Fuegian, until the white travelers of recent centuries brought them newer ideas and implements. In Europe and elsewhere the period of stone gave place to the bronze and iron ages, and throughout the changing years human inventiveness improved the missile and weapon to become the bow and arrow of medieval civilization and recent African savagery. The artillery and shells of modern warfare are their still more highly evolved descendants.

So it is with the dwellings of men, and the significance of the changes displayed by such things. The cave was a natural shelter for primitive man as well as for the wolf, and it is still used by men to-day. Where it did not exist, a leafy screen of branches served in its stead; even now there are human beings, like the African pygmy and the Indian of Brazil, who are little beyond the orang-outang as regards the character of the shelter they construct out of vegetation. From such crude beginnings, on a par with the lairs and nests of lower animals, have evolved the grass huts of the Zulu, the bamboo dwelling of the Malay, the igloo of the Arctic tribes, and the mud house of the desert Indians. The modern palace and apartment are merely more complex and more elaborate in material and architectural plan, when compared with their primitive antecedents.

Baskets, clay vessels, and other household articles testify in the same way to an evolution of the mental views of the people making them. The means of transportation are even more demonstrative. The wagon of the early Briton was like a rough ox-cart of the present day, evolved from the simple sledge as a beginning. In its turn it has served as a prototype for all the conveyances on wheels such as the stage-coach and the modern Pullman. The history of locomotives, employed in the first chapter to develop a clear conception of what evolution means, takes its place here as a demonstration of the way human ideas about traction have themselves evolved so as to render the construction of such mechanisms possible.

The primitive savage swimming in the sea found that a floating log supported his weight as he rested from his efforts. By the strokes of his arms or of a club in his hand, he could propel this log in a desired direction; thus the dugout canoe arose, to be steadied by the outrigger as the savage enlarged his experience. A cloth held aloft aided his progress down or across the wind, and it became an integral element of the sailing craft, which evolved through the stages of the galley and caravel to the schooner and frigate of modern times. When the steam-engine was invented and incorporated in the boat, a new line of evolution was initiated, leading from the "Clermont" to the "Lusitania" and the battleship.