LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
- PAGE.
- Elkington's Mode [32], [33]
- Ditch and Bore-hole [35]
- Keythorpe System [42]
- Theory of Springs [80]-[84]
- Plug Drainage [106], [107]
- Mole Plow [108]
- Wedge Drains [111]
- Shoulder Drains [111]
- Larch Tube [112]
- Pole Drain [113]
- Peat Tiles and Tool [113]
- Stone Drains [115]-[117]
- Draining Bricks [121]
- Round Pipes [122]
- Horse-shoe Tile [124]
- Sole-Tile [125]
- Pipes and Collar [126]
- Flat-bottomed Pipe-Tile [129]
- Drains across Slope [150]
- Draining Irregular Strata [162]
- Relief Drains [162]
- Small Outlet [178]
- Large Outlet [179], [180]
- Outlet, with Flap [181]
- Well, with Silt Basin [186]
- Peep-hole [188]
- Spring in Drained Field [189]
- Main of Two Tiles [194]
- Main of Several Tiles [194]
- Plan of Drained Field [195]
- Junction of Drains [196]
- Branch Pipe [197]
- Daines' Tile Machine [209]
- Pratt's Tile Machine [210]
- Tiles, laid well and ill [229]
- Square and Plumb-Level [229]
- Spirit Level [230]
- Staff and Target [231]
- Span, or A Level [232]
- Grading Trenches by Lines [233]
- Challoner's Level [235]
- Drain Spades [235]
- Spade with Spur [236]
- Common Shovel and Spade [236]
- Long-handled Round Shovel [237]
- Shovel Scoop [237]
- Irish Spade [238]
- Birmingham Spades [240]
- Narrow Spades [242]
- English Bottoming Tools [243]
- Drawing and Pushing Scoops [244]
- Pipe-Layer [244]
- Pipe-Laying [245]
- Pick-axes [245]
- Drain Gauge [246]
- Elkington's Auger [246]
- Fowler's Drain Plow [247]
- Pratt's Ditcher [249]
- Paul's Ditcher [250]
- Germination [277], [278]
- Land before Drainage and After [286]
- Heat in Wet Land [288]
- Cracking of Clays [325]
- Drainage of Cellar [355]
- Drainage of Barn Cellar [359]
- Plan of Rand's Drainage [372]
- Plan of H. F. French's Drainage [376]
CONTENTS.
- [CHAPTER I.]
- INTRODUCTORY.
- Why this Treatise does not contain all Knowledge.—Attention of Scientific Men attracted to Drainage.—Lieutenant Maury's Suggestions.—Ralph Waldo Emerson's Views.—Opinions of J. H. Klippart, Esq.; of Professor Mapes; B. P. Johnson, Esq.; Governor Wright, Mr. Custis, &c.—Prejudice against what is English.—Acknowledgements to our Friends at Home and Abroad.—The Wants of our Farmers.
- [CHAPTER II.]
- HISTORY OF THE ART OF DRAINING.
- Draining as old as the Deluge.—Roman Authors.—Walter Bligh in 1650.—No thorough drainage till Smith, of Deanston.—No mention of Tiles in the "Compleat Body of Husbandry," 1758.—Tiles found 100 years old.—Elkington's System.—Johnstone's Puns and Peripatetics.—Draining Springs.—Bletonism, or the Faculty of Perceiving Subterranean Water.—Deanston System.—Views of Mr. Parkes.—Keythorpe System.—Wharncliffe System.—Introduction of Tiles into America.—John Johnston, and Mr. Delafield, of New York.
- [CHAPTER III.]
- RAIN, EVAPORATION AND FILTRATION.
- Fertilizing Substances in Rain Water.—Amount of Rain Fall in United States; in England.—Tables of Rain Fall.—Number of Rainy Days, and Quantity of Rain each Month.—Snow, how Computed as Water.—Proportion of Rain Evaporated.—What Quantity of Water Dry Soil will Hold.—Dew Point.—How Evaporation Cools Bodies.—Artificial Heat Underground.—Tables of Filtration and Evaporation.
- [CHAPTER IV.]
- DRAINAGE OF HIGH LANDS—WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE.
- What is High Land?—Accidents to Crops from Water.—Do Lands need Drainage in America?—Springs.—Theory of Moisture, with Illustrations.—Water of Pressure.—Legal Rights as to Draining our Neighbor's Wells and Land.—What Lands require Drainage?—Horace Greeley's Opinion.—Drainage more Necessary in America than in England; Indications of too much Moisture.—Will Drainage Pay?
- [CHAPTER V.]
- VARIOUS METHODS OF DRAINAGE.
- Open Ditches.—Slope of Banks.—Brush Drains.—Ridge and Furrow.—Plug-Draining.—Mole-Draining.—Mole-Plow.—Wedge and Shoulder Drains.—Larch Tubes.—Drains of Fence Rails, and Poles.—Peat Tiles.—Stone Drains Injured by Moles.—Downing's Giraffes.—Illustrations of Various Kinds of Stone Drains.
- [CHAPTER VI.]
- DRAINAGE WITH TILES.
- What are Drain-Tiles?—Forms of Tiles.—Pipes.—Horse-shoe Tiles.— Sole-Tiles.—Form of Water-Passage.—Collars and their Use.—Size of Pipes.—Velocity.—Friction.—Discharge of Water through Pipes.—Tables of Capacity.—How Water enters Tiles.—Deep Drains run soonest and longest.—Pressure of Water on Pipes.—Durability of Tile Drains.— Drain-Bricks 100 years old.
- [CHAPTER VII.]
- DIRECTION, DISTANCE AND DEPTH OF DRAINS.
- Direction of Drains.—Whence comes the Water?—Inclination of Strata.—Drains across the Slope let Water out as well as Receive it.—Defence against Water from Higher Land.—Open Ditches.—Headers.—Silt-basins.
- Distance of Drains.—Depends on Soil, Depth, Climate, Prices, System.—Conclusions as to Distance.
- Depth of Drains.—Greatly Increases Cost.—Shallow Drains first tried in England.—10,000 Miles of Shallow Drains laid in Scotland by way of Education.—Drains must be below Subsoil plow, and Frost.—Effect of Frost on Tiles and Aqueducts.
- [CHAPTER VIII.]
- ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS.
- Necessity of System.—What Fall is Necessary.—American Examples.—Outlets.—Wells and Relief-Pipes.—Peep-holes.—How to secure Outlets.—Gate to Exclude Back-Water.—Gratings and Screens to keep out Frogs, Snakes, Moles, &c.—Mains, Submains, and Minors, how placed.—Capacity of Pipes.—Mains of Two Tiles.—Junction of Drains.—Effect of Curves and Angles on Currents.—Branch Pipes.—Draining into Wells or Swallow Holes.—Letter from Mr. Denton.
- [CHAPTER IX.]
- THE COST OF TILES—TILE MACHINES.
- Prices far too high; Albany prices.—Length of Tiles.—Cost in Suffolk Co., England.—Waller's Machine.—Williams' Machine.—Cost of Tiles compared with Bricks.—Mr. Denton's Estimate of Cost.—Other Estimates.—Two-inch Tiles can be Made as Cheaply as Bricks.—Process of Rolling Tiles.—Tile Machines.—Descriptions of Daines'.—Pratt & Bro.'s.
- [CHAPTER X.]
- THE COST OF DRAINAGE.
- Draining no more expensive than Fencing.—Engineering.—Guessing not accurate enough.—Slight Fall sufficient.—Instances.—Two Inches to One-Thousand Feet.—Cost of Excavation and Filling.—Narrow Tools required.—Tables of Cubic contents of Drains.—Cost of Drains on our own Farm.—Cost of Tiles.—Weight and Freight of Tiles.—Cost of Outlets.—Cost of Collars.—Smaller Tiles used with Collars.—Number of Tiles to the Acre, with Tables.—Length of Tiles varies.—Number of Rods to the Acre at different Distances.—Final Estimate of Cost.—Comparative Cost of Tile-Drains and Stone-Drains.
- [CHAPTER XI.]
- DRAINING IMPLEMENTS.
- Unreasonable Expectations about Draining Tools.—Levelling Instruments.—Guessing not Accurate.—Level by a Square.—Spirit Level.—Span, or A Level.—Grading by Lines.—Boning-rod.—Challoner's Drain Level.—Spades and Shovels.—Long-handled Shovel.—Irish Spade, description and cut.—Bottoming Tools.—Narrow Spades.—English Bottoming Tools.—Pipe-layer.—Pipe-laying Illustrated.—Pick-axes.—Drain Gauge.—Drain Plows, and Ditch-Diggers.—Fowler's Drain Plow.—Pratt's Ditch-Digger.—McEwan's Drain Plow.—Routt's Drain Plow.
- [CHAPTER XII.]
- PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR OPENING DRAINS AND LAYING TILES.
- Begin at the Outlet.—Use of Plows.—Leveling the Bottom.—Where to begin to lay Pipes.—Mode of Procedure.—Covering Pipes.—Securing Joints.—Filling.—Securing Outlets.—Plans.
- [CHAPTER XIII.]
- EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE UPON THE CONDITION OF THE SOIL.
- Drainage deepens the Soil, and gives the roots a larger pasture.—Cobbett's Lucerne 30 feet deep.—Mechi's Parsnips 13 feet long!—Drainage promotes Pulverization.—Prevents Surface-Washing.—Lengthens the Season.—Prevents Freezing out.—Dispenses with Open Ditches.—Saves 25 per cent. of Labor.—Promotes absorption of Fertilizing Substances from the Air.—Supplies Air to the Roots.—Drains run before Rain; so do some Springs.—Drainage warms the Soil.—Corn sprouts at 55°; Rye on Ice.—Cold from Evaporation.—Heat will not pass downward in Water.—Count Rumford's Experiments with Hot Water on Ice.—Aeration of Soil by Drains.
- [CHAPTER XIV.]
- DRAINAGE ADAPTS THE SOIL TO GERMINATION AND VEGETATION.
- Process of Germination.—Two Classes of Pores in Soils, illustrated by cuts.—Too much Water excludes Air, reduces Temperature.—How much Air the Soil Contains.—Drainage Improves the Quality of Crops.—Drainage prevents Drought.—Drained Soils hold most Water.—Allow Roots to go Deep.—Various Facts.
- [CHAPTER XV.]
- TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTED BY DRAINAGE.
- Drainage Warms the Soil in Spring.—Heat cannot go down in Wet Land.—Drainage causes greater Deposit of Dew in Summer.—Dew warms Plants in Night, Cools them in the Morning Sun.—Drainage varies Temperature by Lessening Evaporation.—What is Evaporation.—How it produces Cold.—Drained Land Freezes Deepest, but Thaws Soonest, and the Reasons.
- [CHAPTER XVI.]
- POWER OF SOILS TO ABSORB AND RETAIN MOISTURE.
- Why does not Drainage make the Land too Dry?—Adhesive Attraction.—The Finest Soils exert most Attraction.—How much Water different Soils hold by Attraction.—Capillary Attraction, illustrated.—Power to Imbibe Moisture from the Air.—Weight Absorbed by 1,000 lbs. in 12 Hours.—Dew, Cause of.—Dew Point.—Cause of Frost.—Why Covering Plants Protects from Frost.—Dew Imparts Warmth.—Idea that the Moon Promotes Putrefaction.—Quantity of Dew.
- [CHAPTER XVII.]
- INJURY OF LAND BY DRAINAGE.
- Most Land cannot be Over-drained.—Nature a Deep drainer.—Over-draining of Peaty Soils.—Lincolnshire Fens. Visit to them in 1857.—56 Bushels of Wheat to the Acre.—Wet Meadows Subside by Drainage.—Conclusions.
- [CHAPTER XVIII.]
- OBSTRUCTION OF DRAINS.
- Tiles will fill up, unless well laid.—Obstruction by Sand or Silt.—Obstructions at the Outlet from Frogs, Moles, Action of Frost, and Cattle.—Obstruction by Roots.—Willow, Ash, &c., Trees capricious.—Roots enter Perennial Streams.—Obstruction by Mangold Wurtzel.—Obstruction by Per-Oxide of Iron.—How Prevented.—Obstructions by the Joints Filling.—- No Danger with Two-Inch Pipes.—Water through the Pores.—Collars.—How to Detect Obstructions.
- [CHAPTER XIX.]
- DRAINAGE OF STIFF CLAYS.
- Clay not impervious, or it could not be wet and dried.—Puddling, what is.—Water will stand over Drains on Puddled Soil.—Cracking of Clays by Drying.—Drained Clays improve by time.—Passage of Water through Clay makes it permeable.—Experiment by Mr. Pettibone, of Vermont.—Pressure of Water in Saturated Soil.
- [CHAPTER XX.]
- EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON STREAMS AND RIVERS.
- Drainage Hastens the Supply to the Streams, and thus creates Freshets.—Effect of Drainage on Meadows below; on Water Privileges.—Conflict of Manufacturing and Agricultural Interests.—English Opinions and Facts.—Uses of Drainage Water.—Irrigation.—Drainage Water for Stock.—How used by Mr. Mechi.
- [CHAPTER XXI.]
- LEGISLATION—DRAINAGE COMPANIES.
- England protects her Farmers.—Meadows ruined by Corporation dams.—Old Mills often Nuisances.—Factory Reservoirs.—Flowage extends above level of Dam.—Rye and Derwent Drainage.—Give Steam for Water-Power.—Right to Drain through land of others.—Right to natural flow of Water.—Laws of Mass.—Right to Flow; why not to Drain?—Land-drainage Companies in England.—Lincolnshire Fens.—Government Loans for Drainage.
- [CHAPTER XXII.]
- DRAINAGE OF CELLARS.
- Wet Cellars Unhealthful.—Importance of Cellars in New England.—A Glance at the Garret, by way of Contrast.—Necessity of Drains.—Sketch of an Inundated Cellar.—Tiles best for Drains.—Best Plan of Cellar Drain; Illustration.—Cementing will not do.—Drainage of Barn Cellars.—Uses of them.—Actual Drainage of a very Bad Cellar described.—Drains Outside and Inside; Illustration.
- [CHAPTER XXIII.]
- DRAINAGE OF SWAMPS.
- Vast Extent of Swamp Lands in the United States.—Their Soil.—Sources of their Moisture.—How to Drain them.—The Soil Subsides by Draining.—Catch-water Drains.—Springs.—Mr. Ruffin's Drainage in Virginia.—Is there Danger of Over-draining?
- [CHAPTER XXIV.]
- AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS IN DRAINAGE—DRAINAGE IN IRELAND.
- Statement of B. F. Nourse, of Maine.—Statement of Shedd and Edson, of Mass.—Statement of H. F. French, of New Hampshire.—Letter of Wm. Boyle, Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, Ireland.
- [INDEX.]
FARM DRAINAGE.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
Why this Treatise does not contain all Knowledge.—Attention of Scientific Men attracted to Drainage.—Lieutenant Maury's Suggestions.—Ralph Waldo Emerson's Views.—Opinions of J. H. Klippart, Esq.; of Professor Mapes; B. P. Johnston, Esq.; Governor Wright, Mr. Custis, &c.—Prejudice against what is English.—Acknowledgements to our Friends at Home and Abroad.—The Wants of our Farmers.
A Book upon Farm Drainage! What can a person find on such a subject to write a book about? A friend suggests, that in order to treat any one subject fully, it is necessary to know everything and speak of everything, because all knowledge is in some measure connected.
With an earnest endeavor to clip the wings of imagination, and to keep not only on the earth, but to burrow, like a mole or a sub-soiler, in it, with a painful apprehension lest some technical term in Chemistry or Philosophy should falsely indicate that we make pretensions to the character of a scientific farmer, or some old phrase of law-Latin should betray that we know something besides agriculture, and so, are not worthy of the confidence of practical men, we have, nevertheless, by some means, got together more than a bookfull of matter upon our subject.
Our publisher says our book must be so large, and no larger—and we all know that an author is but as a grasshopper in the hands of his publisher, and ought to be very thankful to be allowed to publish his book at all. So we have only to say, that if there is any chapter in this book not sufficiently elaborate, or any subject akin to that of drainage, that ought to have been embraced in our plan and is not, it is because we have not space for further expansion. The reader has our heartfelt sympathy, if it should happen that the very topic which most interests him, is entirely omitted, or imperfectly treated; and we can only advise him to write a book himself, by way of showing proper resentment, and put into it everything that everybody desires most to know.