Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries, Vol. 1

by Henry Hallam

CHAPTER I.
ON THE GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END OF THEFOURTEENTH CENTURY.
	Page
Retrospect of Learning in Middle Ages Necessary	[1]
Loss of learning in Fall of Roman Empire	[1]
Boethius—his Consolation of Philosophy	[1]
Rapid Decline of Learning in Sixth Century	[2]
A Portion remains in the Church	[2]
Prejudices of the Clergy against Profane Learning	[2]
Their Uselessness in preserving it	[3]
First Appearances of reviving Learning in Ireland and England	[3]
Few Schools before the Age of Charlemagne	[3]
Beneficial Effects of those Established by him	[4]
The Tenth Century more progressive than usually supposed	[4]
Want of Genius in the Dark Ages	[5]
Prevalence of bad Taste	[5]
Deficiency of poetical Talent	[5]
Imperfect State of Language may account for this	[6]
Improvement at beginning of Twelfth Century	[6]
Leading Circumstances in Progress of Learning	[6]
Origin of the University of Paris	[6]
Modes of treating the Science of Theology	[6]
Scholastic Philosophy—its Origin	[7]
Roscelin	[7]
Progress of Scholasticism; Increase of University of Paris	[8]
Universities founded	[8]
Oxford	[8]
Collegiate Foundations not derived from the Saracens	[9]
Scholastic Philosophy promoted by Mendicant Friars	[9]
Character of this Philosophy	[10]
It prevails least in Italy	[10]
Literature in Modern Languages	[10]
Origin of the French, Spanish, and Italian Languages	[10]
Corruption of colloquial Latin in the Lower Empire	[11]
Continuance of Latin in Seventh Century	[12]
It is changed to a new Language in Eighth and Ninth	[12]
Early Specimens of French	[13]
Poem on Boethius	[13]
Provençal Grammar	[14]
Latin retained in use longer in Italy	[14]
French of Eleventh Century	[14]
Metres of Modern Languages	[15]
Origin of Rhyme in Latin	[16]
Provençal and French Poetry	[16]
Metrical Romances—Havelok the Dane	[18]
Diffusion of French Language	[19]
German Poetry of Swabian Period	[19]
Decline of German Poetry	[20]
Poetry of France and Spain	[21]
Early Italian Language	[22]
Dante and Petrarch	[22]
Change of Anglo-Saxon to English	[22]
Layamon	[23]
Progress of English Language	[23]
English of the Fourteenth Century—Chaucer, Gower	[24]
General Disuse of French in England	[24]
State of European Languages about 1400	[25]
Ignorance of Reading and Writing in darker Ages	[25]
Reasons for supposing this to have diminished after 1100	[26]
Increased Knowledge of Writing in Fourteenth Century	[27]
Average State of Knowledge in England	[27]
Invention of Paper	[28]
Linen Paper when first used	[28]
Cotton Paper	[28]
Linen Paper as old as 1100	[28]
Known to Peter of Clugni	[29]
And in Twelfth and Thirteenth Century	[29]
Paper of mixed Materials	[29]
Invention of Paper placed by some too low	[29]
Not at first very important	[30]
Importance of Legal Studies	[30]
Roman Laws never wholly unknown	[31]
Irnerius—his first Successors	[31]
Their Glosses	[31]
Abridgements of Law—Accursius’s Corpus Glossatum	[31]
Character of early Jurists	[32]
Decline of Jurists after Accursius	[32]
Respect paid to him at Bologna	[33]
Scholastic Jurists—Bartolus	[33]
Inferiority of Jurists in Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries	[34]
Classical Literature and Taste in dark Ages	[34]
Improvement in Tenth and Eleventh Centuries	[34]
Lanfranc and his Schools	[35]
Italy—Vocabulary of Papias	[36]
Influence of Italy upon Europe	[36]
Increased copying of Manuscripts	[36]
John of Salisbury	[36]
Improvement of Classical Taste in Twelfth Century	[37]
Influence of increased Number of Clergy	[38]
Decline of Classical Literature in Thirteenth Century	[38]
Relapse into Barbarism	[38]
No Improvement in Fourteenth Century—Richard of Bury	[39]
Library formed by Charles V. at Paris	[39]
Some Improvement in Italy during Thirteenth Century	[40]
Catholicon of Balbi	[40]
Imperfection of early Dictionaries	[40]
Restoration of Letters due to Petrarch	[40]
Character of his Style	[41]
His Latin Poetry	[41]
John of Ravenna	[41]
Gasparin of Barziza	[42]
CHAPTER II.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1400 TO 1440.
Zeal for Classical Literature in Italy	[42]
Poggio Bracciolini	[42]
Latin Style of that Age indifferent	[43]
Gasparin of Barziza	[43]
Merits of his Style	[43]
Victorin of Feltre	[44]
Leonard Aretin	[44]
Revival of Greek Language in Italy	[44]
Early Greek Scholars of Europe	[44]
Under Charlemagne and his Successors	[45]
In the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries	[45]
In the Twelfth	[46]
In the Thirteenth	[46]
Little Appearance of it in the Fourteenth Century	[47]
Some Traces of Greek in Italy	[47]
Corruption of Greek Language itself	[47]
Character of Byzantine Literature	[48]
Petrarch and Boccace learn Greek	[48]
Few acquainted with the Language in their Time	[49]
It is taught by Chrysoloras about 1395	[49]
His Disciples	[49]
Translations from Greek into Latin	[50]
Public Encouragement delayed	[51]
But fully accorded before 1440	[51]
Emigration of learned Greeks to Italy	[52]
Causes of Enthusiasm for Antiquity in Italy	[52]
Advanced State of Society	[52]
Exclusive Study of Antiquity	[53]
Classical Learning in France low	[53]
Much more so in England	[53]
Library of Duke of Gloucester	[54]
Gerard Groot’s College at Deventer	[54]
Physical Sciences in Middle Ages	[55]
Arabian Numerals and Method	[55]
Proofs of them in Thirteenth Century	[56]
Mathematical Treatises	[56]
Roger Bacon	[57]
His Resemblance to Lord Bacon	[57]
English Mathematicians of Fourteenth Century	[57]
Astronomy	[58]
Alchemy	[58]
Medicine	[58]
Anatomy	[58]
Encyclopædic Works of Middle Ages	[58]
Vincent of Beauvais	[59]
Berchorius	[59]
Spanish Ballads	[59]
Metres of Spanish Poetry	[60]
Consonant and assonant Rhymes	[60]
Nature of the Glosa	[61]
The Cancionero General	[61]
Bouterwek’s Character of Spanish Songs	[61]
John II.	[62]
Poets of his Court	[62]
Charles, Duke of Orleans	[62]
English Poetry	[62]
Lydgate	[63]
James I. of Scotland	[63]
Restoration of Classical Learning due to Italy	[63]
Character of Classical Poetry lost in Middle Ages	[64]
New School of Criticism in Modern Languages	[64]
Effect of Chivalry on Poetry	[64]
Effect of Gallantry towards Women	[64]
Its probable Origin	[64]
It is shown in old Teutonic Poetry; but appears in the Stories of Arthur	[65]
Romances of Chivalry of two Kinds	[65]
Effect of Difference of Religion upon Poetry	[66]
General Tone of Romance	[66]
Popular Moral Fictions	[66]
Exclusion of Politics from Literature	[67]
Religious Opinions	[67]
Attacks on the Church	[67]
Three Lines of Religious Opinions in Fifteenth Century	[67]
Treatise de Imitatione Christi	[68]
Scepticism—Defences of Christianity	[69]
Raimond de Sebonde	[69]
His Views misunderstood	[69]
His real Object	[70]
Nature of his Arguments	[70]
CHAPTER III.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1440 TO THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
The year 1440 not chosen as an Epoch	[71]
Continual Progress of Learning	[71]
Nicolas V.	[71]
Justice due to his Character	[72]
Poggio on the Ruins of Rome	[72]
Account of the East, by Conti	[72]
Laurentius Valla	[72]
His Attack on the Court of Rome	[72]
His Treatise on the Latin Language	[73]
Its Defects	[73]
Heeren’s Praise of it	[73]
Valla’s Annotations on the New Testament	[73]
Fresh Arrival of Greeks in Italy	[74]
Platonists and Aristotelians	[74]
Their Controversy	[74]
Marsilius Ficinus	[75]
Invention of Printing	[75]
Block Books	[75]
Gutenberg and Costar’s Claims	[75]
Progress of the Invention	[76]
First printed Bible	[76]
Beauty of the Book	[77]
Early printed Sheets	[77]
Psalter of 1547—Other early Books	[77]
Bible of Pfister	[77]
Greek first taught at Paris	[78]
Leave unwillingly granted	[78]
Purbach—his Mathematical Discoveries	[78]
Other Mathematicians	[78]
Progress of Printing in Germany	[79]
Introduced into France	[79]
Caxton’s first Works	[79]
Printing exercised in Italy	[79]
Lorenzo de’ Medici	[80]
Italian Poetry of Fifteenth Century	[80]
Italian Prose of same Age	[80]
Giostra of Politian	[80]
Paul II. persecutes the Learned	[81]
Mathias Corvinus	[81]
His Library	[81]
Slight Signs of Literature in England	[81]
Paston Letters	[82]
Low Condition of Public Libraries	[83]
Rowley	[83]
Clotilde de Surville	[83]
Number of Books printed in Italy	[83]
First Greek printed	[84]
Study of Antiquities	[84]
Works on that Subject	[84]
Publications in Germany	[85]
In France	[85]
In England, by Caxton	[85]
In Spain	[85]
Translations of Scripture	[85]
Revival of Literature in Spain	[86]
Character of Labrixa	[86]
Library of Lorenzo	[87]
Classics corrected and explained	[87]
Character of Lorenzo	[87]
Prospect from his Villa at Fiesole	[87]
Platonic Academy	[88]
Disputationes Camaldulenses of Landino	[88]
Philosophical Dialogues	[89]
Paulus Cortesius	[89]
Schools in Germany	[89]
Study of Greek at Paris	[91]
Controversy of Realists and Nominalists	[91]
Scotus	[91]
Ockham	[92]
Nominalists in University of Paris	[92]
Low State of Learning in England	[92]
Mathematics	[93]
Regiomontanus	[93]
Arts of Delineation	[93]
Maps	[94]
Geography	[94]
Greek printed in Italy	[94]
Hebrew printed	[95]
Miscellanies of Politian	[95]
Their Character, by Heeren	[95]
His Version of Herodian	[96]
Cornucopia of Perotti	[96]
Latin Poetry of Politian	[96]
Italian Poetry of Lorenzo	[97]
Pulci	[97]
Character of Morgante Maggiore	[97]
Platonic Theology of Ficinus	[98]
Doctrine of Averroes on the Soul	[98]
Opposed by Ficinus	[99]
Desire of Man to explore Mysteries	[99]
Various Methods employed	[99]
Reason and Inspiration	[99]
Extended Inferences from Sacred Books	[99]
Confidence in Traditions	[100]
Confidence in Individuals as inspired	[100]
Jewish Cabbala	[100]
Picus of Mirandola	[101]
His Credulity in the Cabbala	[101]
His Literary Performances	[102]
State of Learning in Germany	[102]
Agricola	[103]
Renish Academy	[103]
Reuchlin	[104]
French Language and Poetry	[104]
European Drama	[104]
Latin	[104]
Orfeo of Politian	[105]
Origin of Dramatic Mysteries	[105]
Their early Stage	[105]
Extant English Mysteries	[105]
First French Theatre	[106]
Theatrical Machinery	[107]
Italian Religious Dramas	[107]
Moralities	[107]
Farces	[107]
Mathematical Works	[107]
Leo Baptista Alberti	[108]
Lionardo da Vinci	[108]
Aldine Greek Editions	[109]
Decline of Learning in Italy	[110]
Hermolaus Barbarus	[111]
Mantuan	[111]
Pontanus	[111]
Neapolitan Academy	[112]
Boiardo	[112]
Francesco Bello	[113]
Italian Poetry near the End of the Century	[113]
Progress of Learning in France and Germany	[113]
Erasmus—his Diligence	[114]
Budæus—his early Studies	[114]
Latin not well written in France	[115]
Dawn of Greek Learning in England	[115]
Erasmus comes to England	[116]
He publishes his Adages	[116]
Romantic Ballads of Spain	[116]
Pastoral Romances	[117]
Portuguese Lyric Poetry	[117]
German popular Books	[117]
Historical Works	[118]
Philip de Comines	[118]
Algebra	[118]
Events from 1490 to 1500	[119]
Close of Fifteenth Century	[119]
Its Literature nearly neglected	[119]
Summary of its Acquisitions	[119]
Their Imperfection	[120]
Number of Books printed	[120]
Advantages already reaped from Printing	[120]
Trade of Bookselling	[121]
Books sold by Printers	[121]
Price of Books	[122]
Form of Books	[122]
Exclusive Privileges	[122]
Power of Universities over Bookselling	[123]
Restraints on Sale of Printed Books	[124]
Effect of Printing on the Reformation	[124]
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1500 TO 1520.
Decline of Learning in Italy	[125]
Press of Aldus	[125]
His Academy	[126]
Dictionary of Calepio	[126]
Books printed in Germany	[126]
First Greek Press at Paris	[126]
Early Studies of Melanchthon	[127]
Learning in England	[127]
Erasmus and Budæus	[128]
Study of Eastern Languages	[128]
Dramatic Works	[128]
Calisto and Melibœa	[128]
Its Character	[129]
Juan de la Enzina	[129]
Arcadia of Sanazzaro	[129]
Asolani of Bembo	[130]
Dunbar	[130]
Anatomy of Zerbi	[130]
Voyages of Cadamosto	[130]
Leo X., his Patronage of Letters	[131]
Roman Gymnasium	[131]
Latin Poetry	[132]
Italian Tragedy	[132]
Sophonisba of Trissino	[132]
Rosmunda of Rucellai	[132]
Comedies of Ariosto	[132]
Books printed in Italy	[133]
Cælius Rhodiginus	[133]
Greek printed in France and Germany	[133]
Greek Scholars in these Countries	[134]
College at Alcala and Louvain	[134]
Latin Style in France	[135]
Greek Scholars in England	[135]
Mode of Teaching in Schools	[136]
Few Classical Works printed here	[137]
State of Learning in Scotland	[137]
Utopia of More	[137]
Inconsistency in his Opinions	[138]
Learning restored in France	[138]
Jealousy of Erasmus and Budæus	[138]
Character of Erasmus	[139]
His Adages severe on Kings	[139]
Instances in illustration	[140]
His Greek Testament	[142]
Patrons of Letters in Germany	[142]
Resistance to Learning	[143]
Unpopularity of the Monks	[145]
The Book excites Odium	[145]
Erasmus attacks the Monks	[145]
Their Contention with Reuchlin	[145]
Origin of the Reformation	[146]
Popularity of Luther	[147]
Simultaneous Reform by Zwingle	[147]
Reformation prepared beforehand	[147]
Dangerous Tenets of Luther	[148]
Real Explanation of them	[149]
Orlando Furioso	[150]
Its Popularity	[150]
Want of Seriousness	[150]
A Continuation of Boiardo	[150]
In some Points inferior	[151]
Beauties of its Style	[151]
Accompanied with Faults	[151]
Its Place as a Poem	[152]
Amadis de Gaul	[152]
Gringore	[152]
Hans Sachs	[152]
Stephen Hawes	[153]
Change in English Language	[153]
Skelton	[154]
Oriental Languages	[154]
Pomponatius	[155]
Raymond Lully	[155]
His Method	[155]
Peter Martyr’s Epistles	[156]
CHAPTER V.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Superiority of Italy in Taste	[157]
Admiration of Antiquity	[158]
Sadolet	[158]
Bembo	[159]
Ciceronianus of Erasmus	[159]
Scaliger’s Invective against it	[160]
Editions of Cicero	[160]
Alexander ab Alexandro	[160]
Works on Roman Antiquities	[161]
Greek less Studied in Italy	[161]
Schools of Classical Learning	[161]
Budæus—his Commentaries on Greek	[161]
Their Character	[162]
Greek Grammars and Lexicons	[162]
Editions of Greek Authors	[163]
Latin Thesaurus of R. Stephens	[163]
Progress of Learning in France	[164]
Learning in Spain	[165]
Effects of Reformation on Learning	[165]
Sturm’s Account of German Schools	[165]
Learning in Germany	[166]
In England—Linacre	[166]
Lectures in the Universities	[166]
Greek perhaps Taught to Boys	[167]
Teaching of Smith at Cambridge	[167]
Succeeded by Cheke	[168]
Ascham’s Character of Cambridge	[168]
Wood’s Account of Oxford	[168]
Education of Edward and his Sisters	[169]
The Progress of Learning is still slow	[169]
Want of Books and Public Libraries	[169]
Destruction of Monasteries no Injury to Learning	[169]
Ravisius Textor	[170]
Conrad Gesner	[170]
CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Progress of the Reformation	[171]
Interference of Civil Power	[171]
Excitement of Revolutionary Spirit	[172]
Growth of Fanaticism	[172]
Differences of Luther and Zwingle	[172]
Confession of Augsburg	[173]
Conduct of Erasmus	[173]
Estimate of it	[174]
His Controversy with Luther	[174]
Character of his Epistles	[176]
His Alienation from the Reformers increases	[176]
Appeal of the Reformers to the Ignorant	[176]
Parallel of those Times with the Present	[177]
Calvin	[177]
His Institutes	[177]
Increased Differences among Reformers	[178]
Reformed Tenets spread in England	[178]
In Italy	[178]
Italian Heterodoxy	[179]
Its Progress in the Literary Classes	[180]
Servetus	[180]
Arianism in Italy	[181]
Protestants in Spain and Low Countries	[181]
Order of Jesuits	[181]
Their Popularity	[181]
Council of Trent	[182]
Its Chief Difficulties	[182]
Character of Luther	[182]
Theological Writings—Erasmus	[183]
Melanchthon—Romish Writers	[183]
This Literature nearly forgotten	[184]
Sermons	[184]
Spirit of the Reformation	[184]
Limits of Private Judgment	[185]
Passions instrumental in Reformation	[185]
Establishment of new Dogmatism	[186]
Editions of Scripture	[186]
Translations of Scripture	[186]
In English	[187]
In Italy and Low Countries	[187]
Latin Translations	[187]
French Translations	[188]
CHAPTER VII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE, MORAL, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, AND OF JURISPRUDENCE, INEUROPE, FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Logic included under this head	[188]
Slow Defeat of Scholastic Philosophy	[188]
It is sustained by the Universities and Regulars	[188]
Commentators on Aristotle	[188]
Attack of Vives on Scholastics	[189]
Contempt of them in England	[189]
Veneration for Aristotle	[189]
Melanchthon countenances him	[189]
His own Philosophical Treatises	[190]
Aristotelians of Italy	[190]
University of Paris	[190]
New Logic of Ramus	[190]
It meets with unfair treatment	[191]
Its Merits and Character	[191]
Buhle’s account of it	[191]
Paracelsus	[191]
His Impostures	[192]
And Extravagancies	[192]
Cornelius Agrippa	[192]
His pretended Philosophy	[193]
His Sceptical Treatise	[193]
Cardan	[193]
Influence of Moral Writers	[194]
Cortegiano of Castiglione	[194]
Marco Aurelio of Guevara	[194]
His Menosprecio di Corte	[194]
Perez d’Oliva	[195]
Ethical Writings of Erasmus and Melanchthon	[195]
Sir T. Elyot’s Governor	[195]
Severity of Education	[196]
He seems to avoid Politics	[196]
Nicholas Machiavel	[196]
His motives in writing the Prince	[197]
Some of his Rules not immoral	[197]
But many dangerous	[197]
Its only Palliation	[198]
His Discourses on Livy	[198]
Their leading Principles	[198]
Their Use and Influence	[199]
His History of Florence	[199]
Treatises on Venetian Government	[199]
Calvin’s Political Principles	[199]
Jurisprudence confined to Roman Law	[200]
The Laws not well arranged	[200]
Adoption of the entire System	[200]
Utility of General Learning to Lawyers	[200]
Alciati—his Reform of Law	[201]
Opposition to him	[201]
Agustino	[201]
CHAPTER VIII.
HISTORY OF THE LITERATURE OF TASTE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Poetry of Bembo	[201]
Its Beauties and Defects	[202]
Character of Italian Poetry	[202]
Alamanni	[202]
Vittoria Colonna	[202]
Satires of Ariosto and Alamanni	[203]
Alamanni	[203]
Rucellai	[203]
Trissino	[203]
Berni	[203]
Spanish Poets	[204]
Boscan and Garcilasso	[204]
Mendoza	[204]
Saa di Miranda	[205]
Ribeyro	[205]
French Poetry	[205]
Marot	[206]
Its Metrical Structure	[206]
German Poetry	[206]
Hans Sachs	[206]
German Hymn	[206]
Theuerdanks of Pfintzing	[206]
English Poetry—Lyndsay	[206]
Wyatt and Surrey	[207]
Dr. Nott’s Character of them	[207]
Perhaps rather exaggerated	[208]
Surrey improves our versification	[208]
Introduces Blank Verse	[208]
Dr. Nott’s Hypothesis as to his Metre	[208]
It seems too extensive	[209]
Politeness of Wyatt and Surrey	[209]
Latin Poetry	[210]
Sannazarius	[210]
Vida	[210]
Fracastorius	[210]
Latin Verse not to be disdained	[210]
Other Latin Poets in Italy	[211]
In Germany	[211]
Italian Comedy	[211]
Machiavel	[211]
Aretin	[211]
Tragedy	[212]
Sperone	[212]
Cinthio	[212]
Spanish Drama	[212]
Torres Naharro	[212]
Lope de Rueda	[212]
Gil Vicente	[213]
Mysteries and Moralities in France	[213]
German Theatre—Hans Sachs	[213]
Moralities and Similar Plays in England	[214]
They are turned to religious Satire	[214]
Latin Plays	[214]
First English Comedy	[215]
Romances of Chivalry	[215]
Novels	[215]
Rabelais	[216]
Contest of Latin and Italian Languages	[216]
Influence of Bembo in this	[217]
Apology for Latinists	[217]
Character of the Controversy	[217]
Life of Bembo	[217]
Character of Italian and Spanish Style	[218]
English Writers	[218]
More	[218]
Ascham	[218]
Italian Criticism	[218]
Bembo	[218]
Grammarians and Critics in France	[219]
Orthography of Meigret	[219]
Cox’s Art of Rhetoric	[219]
CHAPTER IX.
ON THE SCIENTIFIC AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Geometrical Treatises	[220]
Fernel Rhœticus	[220]
Cardan and Tartaglia	[220]
Cubic Equations	[220]
Beauty of the Discovery	[221]
Cardan’s other Discoveries	[221]
Imperfections of Algebraic Language	[222]
Copernicus	[222]
Revival of Greek Medicine	[223]
Linacre and other Physicians	[223]
Medical Innovators	[224]
Paracelsus	[224]
Anatomy	[224]
Berenger	[224]
Vesalius	[224]
Portal’s Account of him	[225]
His Human Dissections	[225]
Fate of Vesalius	[225]
Other Anatomists	[225]
Imperfection of the Science	[225]
Botany—Botanical Gardens	[226]
Ruel	[226]
Fuchs	[226]
Matthioli	[226]
Low State of Zoology	[226]
Agricola	[227]
Hebrew	[227]
Elias Levita—Pellican	[227]
Arabic and Oriental Literature	[227]
Geography of Grynæus	[228]
Apianus	[228]
Munster	[228]
Voyages	[228]
Oviedo	[228]
Historical Works	[228]
Italian Academies	[229]
They pay regard to the Language	[229]
Their fondness for Petrarch	[229]
They become numerous	[229]
Their Distinctions	[230]
Evils connected with them	[230]
They succeed less in Germany	[230]
Libraries	[230]
CHAPTER X.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Progress of Philology	[231]
First Editions of Classics	[231]
Change in Character of Learning	[232]
Cultivation of Greek	[232]
Principal Scholars—Turnebus	[232]
Petrus Victorius	[233]
Muretus	[233]
Gruter’s Thesaurus Criticus	[234]
Editions of Greek and Latin Authors	[235]
Tacitus of Lipsius	[235]
Horace of Lambinus	[235]
Of Cruquius	[236]
Henry Stephens	[236]
Lexicon of Constantin	[237]
Thesaurus of Stephens	[237]
Abridged by Scapula	[238]
Hellenismus of Caninius	[239]
Vergara’s Grammar	[239]
Grammars of Ramus and Sylburgius	[239]
Camerarius—Canter—Robortellus	[240]
Editions by Sylburgius	[241]
Neander	[241]
Gesner	[241]
Decline of Taste in Germany	[242]
German Learning	[242]
Greek Verses of Rhodomanu	[242]
Learning Declines	[243]
Except in Catholic Germany	[243]
Philological Works of Stephens	[243]
Style of Lipsius	[244]
Minerva of Sanctius	[244]
Orations of Muretus	[244]
Panegyric of Ruhnkenius	[244]
Defects of his Style	[245]
Epistles of Manutius	[245]
Care of the Italian Latinists	[245]
Perpinianus—Osorius—Maphœus	[246]
Buchanan—Haddon	[246]
Sigonius, De Consolatione	[246]
Decline of Taste and Learning in Italy	[247]
Joseph Scaliger	[247]
Isaac Casaubon	[248]
General Result	[249]
Learning in England under Edward and Mary	[249]
Revival under Elizabeth	[249]
Greek Lectures at Cambridge	[250]
Few Greek Editions in England	[250]
School Books enumerated	[250]
Greek taught in Schools	[251]
Greek better known after 1580	[251]
Editions of Greek	[252]
And of Latin Classics	[252]
Learning lower than in Spain	[252]
Improvement at the End of the Century.	[253]
Learning in Scotland	[253]
Latin little used in Writing	[253]
Early Works on Antiquities	[254]
P. Manutius on Roman Laws	[254]
Manutius, De Civitate	[254]
Panvinius—Sigonius	[255]
Gruchius	[255]
Sigonius on Athenian Polity	[256]
Patrizzi and Lipsius on Roman Militia	[256]
Lipsius and other Antiquaries	[256]
Saville on Roman Militia	[257]
Numismatics	[257]
Mythology	[257]
Scaliger’s Chronology	[258]
Julian Period	[258]
CHAPTER XI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Diet of Augsburg in 1555	[259]
Progress of Protestantism	[259]
Its Causes	[260]
Wavering of Catholic Princes	[260]
Extinguished in Italy and Spain	[260]
Reaction of Catholicity	[260]
Especially in Germany	[261]
Discipline of the Clergy	[261]
Influence of Jesuits	[261]
Their Progress	[262]
Their Colleges	[262]
Jesuit Seminary at Rome	[262]
Patronage of Gregory XIII.	[262]
Conversions in Germany and France	[263]
Causes of this Reaction	[263]
A rigid Party in the Church	[264]
Its Efforts at Trent	[264]
No Compromise in Doctrine	[265]
Consultation of Cassander	[265]
Bigotry of Protestant Churches	[266]
Tenets of Melanchthon	[266]
A Party hostile to him	[267]
Form of Concord, 1576	[267]
Controversy raised by Baius	[267]
Treatise of Molina on Free will	[268]
Protestant Tenets	[268]
Trinitarian Controversy	[268]
Religious Intolerance	[270]
Castalio	[270]
Answered by Beza	[271]
Aconcio	[271]
Minus Celsus, Koornhert	[271]
Decline of Protestantism	[272]
Desertion of Lipsius	[272]
Jewell’s Apology	[272]
English Theologians	[272]
Bellarmin	[273]
Topics of Controversy changed	[273]
It turns on Papal Power	[274]
This upheld by the Jesuits	[274]
Claim to depose Princes	[274]
Bull against Elizabeth	[274]
And Henry IV.	[275]
Deposing Power owned in Spain	[275]
Asserted by Bellarmin	[275]
Methods of Theological Doctrine	[275]
Loci Communes	[275]
In the Protestant and Catholic Church	[276]
Catharin	[276]
Critical and Expository Writings	[276]
Ecclesiastical Historians	[277]
Le Clerc’s Character of them	[277]
Deistical Writers	[277]
Wierus, De Præstigiis	[278]
Scot on Witchcraft	[278]
Authenticity of Vulgate	[278]
Latin Versions and Editions by Catholics	[278]
By Protestants	[279]
Versions into Modern Languages	[279]
CHAPTER XII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Predominance of Aristotelian Philosophy	[279]
Scholastic and genuine Aristotelians	[280]
The former class little remembered	[280]
The others not much better known	[280]
Schools of Pisa and Padua	[280]
Cesalpini	[280]
Sketch of his System	[280]
Cremonini	[281]
Opponents of Aristotle	[281]
Patrizzi	[281]
System of Telesio	[281]
Jordano Bruno	[282]
His Italian Works—Cena de li Ceneri	[282]
Della Causa, Principio ed Uno	[282]
Pantheism of Bruno	[283]
Bruno’s other Writings	[284]
General Character of his Philosophy	[285]
Sceptical Theory of Sanchez	[286]
Logic of Aconcio	[286]
Nizolius on the Principles of Philosophy	[286]
Margarita Antoniana of Pereira	[287]
Logic of Ramus—its Success	[288]
CHAPTER XIII.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Soto, De Justitia	[289]
Hooker	[290]
His Theory of Natural Law	[290]
Doubts felt by others	[290]
Essays of Montaigne	[290]
Their Characteristics	[290]
Writers on Morals in Italy	[293]
In England	[293]
Bacon’s Essays	[293]
Number of Political Writers	[294]
Oppression of Governments	[294]
And Spirit generated by it	[294]
Derived from Classic History	[294]
From their own and the Jewish	[294]
Franco Gallia of Hossoman	[295]
Vindiciæ of Languet	[295]
Contr’Un of Boetie	[295]
Buchanan, De Jure Regni	[296]
Poynet, on Politique Power	[296]
Its liberal Theory	[296]
Argues for Tyrannicide	[297]
The Tenets of Parties swayed by Circumstances	[297]
Similar Tenets among the Leaguers	[298]
Rose on the Authority of Christian States over Kings	[298]
Treatise of Boucher in the same Spirit	[299]
Answered by Barclay	[299]
The Jesuits adopt these Tenets	[299]
Mariana, De Rege	[299]
Popular Theories in England	[300]
Hooker	[300]
Political Memoirs	[301]
La Noue	[301]
Lipsius	[301]
Botero	[301]
His Remarks on Population	[301]
Paruta	[302]
Bodin	[302]
Analysis of his Treatise called the Republic	[302]
Authority of Heads of Families	[302]
Domestic Servitude	[303]
Origin of Commonwealths	[303]
Privileges of Citizens	[303]
Nature of Sovereign Power	[304]
Forms of Government	[304]
Despotism and Monarchy	[304]
Aristocracy	[305]
Senates and Councils of State	[305]
Duties of Magistrates	[305]
Corporations	[305]
Slaves, part of the State	[305]
Rise and Fall of States	[306]
Causes of Revolution	[306]
Astrological Fancies of Bodin	[306]
Danger of sudden Changes	[307]
Judicial Power of the Sovereign	[307]
Toleration of Religions	[307]
Influence of Climate on Government	[307]
Means of obviating Inequality	[308]
Confiscations—Rewards	[308]
Fortresses	[308]
Necessity of Good Faith	[309]
Census of Property	[309]
Public Revenues	[309]
Taxation	[309]
Adulteration of Coin	[310]
Superiority of Monarchy	[310]
Conclusion of the Work	[310]
Bodin compared with Aristotle and Machiavel	[310]
And with Montesquieu	[310]
Golden Age of Jurisprudence	[311]
Cujacius	[311]
Eulogies bestowed upon him	[311]
Cujacius, an Interpreter of Law rather than a Lawyer	[312]
French Lawyers below Cujacius—Govca and others	[312]
Opponents of the Roman Law	[313]
Faber of Savoy	[313]
Anti-Tribonianus of Hottoman	[313]
Civil Law not countenanced in France	[314]
Turamini	[314]
Cau Law	[314]
Law of Nations; its early State	[314]
Francis a Victoria	[314]
His Opinions on Public Law	[315]
Ayala, on the Rights of War	[315]
Albericus Gentilis on Embassies	[316]
His Treatise on the Rights of War	[317]
CHAPTER XIV.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
General Character of Italian Poets in this Age	[318]
Their usual Faults	[318]
Their Beauties	[318]
Character given by Muratori	[318]
Poetry of Casa	[318]
Of Costanzo	[319]
Baldi	[319]
Caro	[319]
Odes of Celio Magus	[319]
Coldness of the Amatory Sonnets	[320]
Studied Imitation of Petrarch	[320]
Their Fondness for Description	[320]
Judgment of Italian Critics	[320]
Bernardino Rota	[320]
Gaspara Stampa; her Love for Collalto	[321]
Is ill-requited	[322]
Her Second Love	[322]
Style of Gaspara Stampa	[322]
La Nautica of Baldi	[322]
Amadigi of Bernardo Tasso	[323]
Satirical and burlesque Poetry; Aretin	[323]
Other burlesque Writers	[324]
Attempts at Latin Metres	[324]
Poetical Translations	[324]
Torquato Tasso	[324]
The Jerusalem excellent in Choice of Subject	[324]
Superior to Homer and Virgil in some Points	[324]
Its Characters	[325]
Excellence of its Style	[325]
Some Faults in it	[325]
Defects of the Poem	[326]
It indicates the peculiar Genius of Tasso	[326]
Tasso compared to Virgil	[326]
To Ariosto	[326]
To the Bolognese Painters	[327]
Poetry Cultivated under Charles and Philip	[327]
Luis de Leon	[328]
Herrera	[328]
General Tone of Castilian Poetry	[329]
Castillejo	[329]
Araucana of Ercilla	[329]
Many epic Poems in Spain	[329]
Camœns	[330]
Defects of the Lusiad	[330]
Its Excellencies	[330]
Mickle’s Translation	[330]
Celebrated Passage in the Lusiad	[331]
Minor Poems of Camœns	[331]
Ferreira	[331]
Spanish Ballads	[331]
French Poets numerous	[332]
Change in the Tone of French Poetry	[333]
Ronsard	[333]
Other French Poets	[334]
Du Bartas	[334]
Pibrac; Desportes	[335]
French Metre and Versification	[335]
General character of French Poetry	[335]
German Poetry	[336]
Paradise of Dainty Devices	[336]
Character of this Collection	[336]
Sackville’s Induction	[336]
Inferiority of Poets in early years of Elizabeth	[337]
Gascoyne	[337]
Spenser’s Shepherd’s Kalendar	[337]
Sydney’s Character of Contemporary Poets	[338]
Improvement soon after this Time	[338]
Relaxation of Moral Austerity	[339]
Serious Poetry	[339]
Poetry of Sydney	[339]
Epithalanium of Spenser	[340]
Poems of Shakspeare	[340]
Daniel and Drayton	[340]
Nosce Teipsum of Davies	[340]
Satires of Hall, Marston, and Donne	[341]
Modulation of English Verse	[341]
Translations of Homer by Chapman	[341]
Of Tasso by Fairfax	[342]
Employment of Ancient Measures	[342]
Number of Poets in this Age	[342]
Scots and English Ballads	[343]
The Faery Queen	[343]
Superiority of the First Book	[343]
The succeeding Books	[344]
Spenser’s Sense of Beauty	[344]
Compared to Ariosto	[344]
Style of Spenser	[345]
Inferiority of the latter Books	[345]
Allegories of the Faery Queen	[346]
Blemishes in the Diction	[346]
Admiration of the Faery Queen	[346]
General Parallel of Italian and English Poetry	[347]
Decline of Latin Poetry in Italy	[347]
Compensated in other Countries	[347]
Lotichius	[347]
Collections of Latin Poetry by Gruter	[348]
Characters of some Gallo-Latin Poets	[348]
Sammarthanus	[349]
Belgic Poets	[349]
Scots Poets—Buchanan	[349]
CHAPTER XV.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Tragedy	[350]
Pastoral Drama	[351]
Aminta of Tasso	[351]
Pastor Fido of Guarini	[352]
Italian Opera	[352]
The National Taste revives in the Spanish Drama	[353]
Lope de Vega	[353]
His Extraordinary Fertility	[353]
His Versification	[354]
His Popularity	[354]
Character of his Comedies	[354]
Tragedy of Don Sancho Ortiz	[355]
His Spiritual Plays	[356]
Numancia of Cervantes	[356]
French Theatre—Jodelle	[357]
Garnier	[357]
Comedies of Larivey	[358]
Theatres in Paris	[358]
English Stage	[359]
Gammar Gurton’s Needle	[359]
Gorboduc of Sackville	[359]
Preference given to the Irregular Form	[359]
First Theatres	[360]
Plays of Whetstone and Others	[360]
Marlowe and his Contemporaries	[360]
Tamburlaine	[361]
Blank Verse of Marlowe	[361]
Marlowe’s Jew of Malta	[361]
And Faustus	[361]
His Edward II.	[361]
Plays whence Henry VI. was taken	[361]
Peele	[362]
Greene	[362]
Other Writers of this Age	[363]
Heywood’s Woman Killed with Kindness	[363]
William Shakspeare	[364]
His First Writings for the Stage	[364]
Comedy of Errors	[365]
Love’s Labour Lost	[365]
Taming of the Shrew	[365]
Midsummer Night’s Dream	[365]
Its Machinery	[366]
Its Language	[366]
Romeo and Juliet	[366]
Its Plot	[367]
Its Beauties and Blemishes	[367]
The Characters	[367]
The Language	[367]
Second Period of Shakspeare	[368]
The Historical Plays	[368]
Merchant of Venice	[368]
As You Like It	[369]
Jonson’s Every Man in his Humour	[369]
CHAPTER XVI.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Writers	[369]
Casa	[369]
Tasso	[370]
Firenzuola	[370]
Character of Italian Prose	[370]
Italian Letter Writers	[370]
Davanzati’s Tacitus	[371]
Jordano Bruno	[371]
French Writers—Amyot	[371]
Montaigne; Du Vair	[371]
Satire Menippée	[372]
English Writers	[372]
Ascham	[372]
Euphues of Lilly	[373]
Its Popularity	[373]
Sydney’s Arcadia	[374]
His Defence of Poesie	[374]
Hooker	[374]
Character of Elizabethan Writers	[374]
State of Criticism	[375]
Scaliger’s Poetics	[375]
His Preference of Virgil to Homer	[375]
His Critique on Modern Latin Poets	[376]
Critical Influence of the Academics	[376]
Dispute of Caro and Castelvetro	[377]
Castelvetro on Aristotle’s Poetics	[377]
Severity of Castelvetro’s Criticism	[377]
Ercolano of Varchi	[378]
Controversy about Dante	[378]
Academy of Florence	[378]
Salviati’s Attack on Tasso	[379]
Pinciano’s Art of Poetry	[379]
French Treatises of Criticism	[379]
Wilson’s Art of Rhetorique	[379]
Gascoyne; Webbe	[380]
Puttenham’s Art of Poesie	[380]
Sydney’s Defence of Poesy	[380]
Novels of Bandello	[380]
Of Cinthio	[381]
Of the Queen of Navarre	[381]
Spanish Romances of Chivalry	[381]
Diana of Monte-Mayor	[382]
Novels in the Picaresque Style	[382]
Guzman d’Alfarache	[382]
Las Guerras de Granada	[383]
Sydney’s Arcadia	[383]
Its Character	[383]
Inferiority of other English Fictions	[384]
CHAPTER XVII.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE FROM 1500 TO 1600.
Tartaglia and Cardan	[385]
Algebra of Pelletier	[385]
Record’s Whetstone of Wit	[385]
Vieta	[385]
His Discoveries	[386]
Geometers of this Period	[388]
Joachim Rhœticus	[388]
Copernican Theory	[388]
Tycho Brahe	[389]
His System	[389]
Gregorian Calendar	[390]
Optics	[390]
Mechanics	[390]
Statics of Stevinus	[391]
Hydrostatics	[392]
Gilbert on the Magnet	[392]
Gesner’s Zoology	[392]
Its Character by Cuvier	[392]
Gesner’s Arrangement	[393]
His Additions to known Quadrupeds	[393]
Belon	[394]
Salviani and Rondelet’s Ichthyology	[394]
Aldrovandus	[394]
Botany—Turner	[395]
Maranta—Botanical Gardens	[395]
Gesner	[396]
Dodœns	[396]
Lobel	[396]
Clusius	[396]
Cæsalpin	[396]
Dalechamps—Bauhin	[397]
Gerard’s Herbal	[397]
Anatomy—Fallopius	[397]
Eustachius	[397]
Coiter	[398]
Columbus	[398]
Circulation of the Blood	[398]
Medicinal Science	[398]
Syriac Version of New Testament	[399]
Hebrew Critics	[399]
Its Study in England	[399]
Arabic begins to be Studied	[399]
Collection of Voyages by Ramusio	[400]
Curiosity they awakened	[400]
Other Voyages	[401]
Accounts of China	[401]
India and Russia	[401]
English Discoveries in the Northern Seas	[401]
Geographical Books—Ortelius	[401]
Guicciardini	[402]
French Memoirs	[403]
Universities in Italy	[403]
In other Countries	[403]
Libraries	[403]
Collections of Antiquities in Italy	[404]
Pinelli	[404]
Italian Academies	[405]
Society of Antiquaries in England	[405]
New Books and Catalogues of them	[406]
Literary Correspondence	[406]
Bibliographical Works	[406]
Restraints on the Press	[407]
Index Expurgatorius	[407]
Its Effects	[407]
Restrictions in England	[407]
Latin more employed on this account	[408]
Influence of Literature	[408]
CHAPTER XVIII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Learning of 17th Century less Philological	409
Popularity of Comenius	409
Decline of Greek Learning	410
Casaubon	410
Viger de Idiotismis	411
Weller’s Greek Grammar	411
Labbe and Others	411
Salmasius de Lingua Hellenistica	412
Greek Editions—Savile’s Chrysostom	412
Greek Learning in England	413
Latin Editions—Torrentius	413
Gruter	413
Heinsius	413
Grotius	414
Rutgersius—Reinesius—Barthius	414
Other Critics—English	414
Salmasius	415
Good Writers of Latin	415
Scioppius	416
His Philosophical Grammar	416
His Infamia Famiani	416
Judicium de Stylo Historico	416
Gerard Vossius, de Vitiis Sermonis	417
His Aristarchus	417
Progress of Latin Style	418
Gruter’s Collection of Inscriptions	418
Assisted by Scaliger	419
Works on Roman Antiquity	419
Geography of Cluversius	420
Meursius	420
Ubbo Emmius	420
Chronology of Lydiat—Calvisius	420
Petavius	421
Character of this Work	421
CHAPTER XIX.
HISTORY Of THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Temporal Supremacy of Rome	422
Contest with Venice	423
Father Paul Sarpi	423
History of Council of Trent	424
Gallican Liberties—Richter	424
Perron	425
Decline of Papal Power	425
Unpopularity of the Jesuits	426
Richelieu’s Care of Gallican Liberties	426
Controversy of Catholics and Protestants	426
Increased respect for the Fathers	426
Especially in England—Laud	427
Defections to the Catholic Church	427
Wavering of Casaubon	428
And of Grotius	429
Calixtus	434
His Attempts at Concord	434
High Church Party in England	435
Daillé on the Right Use of the Fathers	435
Chillingworth’s Religion of Protestants	436
Character of this Work	436
Hales on Schism	438
Controversies on Grace and Free will—Augustinian Scheme	438
Semi-pelagian Hypothesis	439
Tenets of the Reformers	439
Rise of Arminianism	440
Episcopius	440
His Writings	440
Their Spirit and Tendency	440
Great Latitude allowed by them	441
Progress of Arminianism	441
Cameron	441
Rise of Jansenism	441
Socinus—Volkelius	442
Crellius—Ruarus	442
Erastianism maintained by Hooker	443
And Grotius	444
His Treatise on Ecclesiastical Power of the State	444
Remark upon this Theory	446
Toleration of Religious Tenets	446
Claimed by the Arminians	446
By the Independents	447
And by Jeremy Taylor	447
His Liberty of Prophesying	447
Boldness of his Doctrines	447
His Notions of Uncertainty in Theological Tenets	448
His low Opinion of the Fathers	448
Difficulty of Finding out Truth	449
Grounds of Toleration	449
Inconsistency of One Chapter	450
His General Defence of Toleration	450
Effect of this Treatise	451
Its Defects	451
Great Erudition of this Period	452
Usher—Petavius	452
Sacred Criticism	452
Grotius—Coccejus	452
English Commentators	453
Style of Preaching	453
English Sermons	453
Of Donne	454
Of Jeremy Taylor	454
Devotional Writings of Taylor and Hall	454
In the Roman	455
And Lutheran Church	455
Infidelity of some Writers—Charron—Vanini	455
Lord Herbert of Cherbury	456
Grotius de Veritate	457
English Translation of the Bible	457
Its Style	457
CHAPTER XX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Subjects of this Chapter	458
Aristotelians and Ramists	458
No improvement till near the End of the Century	459
Methods of the Universities	459
Scholastic Writers	459
Treatises on Logic	460
Campanella	460
His Theory taken from Telesio	460
Notion of Universal Sensibility	461
His Imagination and Eloquence	461
His Works Published by Admai	462
Basson	463
Berigard	463
Magnen	463
Paracelsists	463
And Theosophists	463
Fludd	464
Jacob Behmen	464
Lord Herbert de Veritate	464
His Axioms	465
Conditions of Truth	465
Instinctive Truths	466
Internal Perceptions	466
Five Notions of Natural Religion	466
Remarks of Gassendi on Herbert	467
Gassendi’s Defence of Epicurus	468
His chief Works after 1650	468
Preparation for the Philosophy of Lord Bacon	468
His Plan of Philosophy	468
Time of its Conception	469
Instauratio Magna	470
First Part—Partitiones Scientiarum	470
Second Part—Novum Organum	470
Third Part—Natural History	470
Fourth Part—Scala Intellectûs	471
Fifth Part—Anticipationes Philosophiæ	471
Sixth Part—Philosophia Secunda	471
Course of studying Lord Bacon	472
Nature of the Baconian Induction	472
His Dislike of Aristotle	474
His Method much required	474
Its Objects	474
Sketch of the Treatise De Augmentis	474
History	474
Poetry	475
Fine Passage on Poetry	475
Natural Theology and Metaphysics	475
Form of Bodies might sometimes be inquired into	475
Final Causes too much slighted	476
Man not included by him in Physics	476
Man—in Body and Mind	476
Logic	476
Extent given it by Bacon	476
Grammar and Rhetoric	477
Ethics	477
Politics	477
Theology	478
Desiderata enumerated by him	478
Novum Organum—First Book	478
Fallacies—Idola	478
Confounded with Idols	478
Second Book of Novum Organum	479
Confidence of Bacon	479
Almost justified of late	480
But should be kept within Bounds	481
Limits to our Knowledge by Sense	481
Inductive Logic—whether confined to Physics	481
Baconian Philosophy built on Observation and Experiment	482
Advantages of the latter	482
Sometimes applicable to Philosophy of Human Mind	483
Less so to Politics and Morals	483
Induction less conclusive on these Subjects	483
Reasons for this Difference	484
Considerations on the other Side	484
Result of the whole	485
Bacon’s Aptitude for Moral Subjects	486
Comparison of Bacon and Galileo	487
His Prejudice against Mathematics	488
Bacon’s Excess of Wit	488
Fame of Bacon on the Continent	489
Early Life of Descartes	491
His beginning to philosophise	491
He retires to Holland	491
His Publications	492
He begins by doubting all	492
His First Step in Knowledge	492
His Mind not Sceptical	493
He arrives at more Certainty	493
His Proof of a Deity	493
Another Proof of it	494
His Deductions from this	494
Primary and Secondary Qualities	495
Objections made to his Meditations	495
Theory of Memory and Imagination	496
Seat of Soul in Pineal Gland	497
Gassendi’s Attacks on the Meditations	497
Superiority of Descartes	497
Stewart’s Remarks on Descartes	498
Paradoxes of Descartes	499
His Just Notions and Definitions	500
His Notion of Substances	501
Not Quite Correct	501
His Notions of Intuitive Truth	501
Treatise on Art of Logic	502
Merits of his Writings	502
His Notions of Free will	502
Fame of his System, and Attacks upon it	503
Controversy with Voet	503
Charges of Plagiarism	504
Recent Increase of his Fame	505
Metaphysical Treatises of Hobbes	505
His Theory of Sensation	506
Coincident with Descartes	506
Imagination and Memory	506
Discourse or Train of Imagination	507
Experience	507
Unconceivableness of Infinity	507
Origin of Language	508
His Political Theory interferes	508
Necessity of Speech exaggerated	509
Use of Names	509
Names Universal not Realities	509
How imposed	510
The Subject continued	510
Names differently imposed	511
Knowledge	511
Reasoning	512
False Reasoning	512
Its frequency	513
Knowledge of Fact not derived from Reasoning	514
Belief	514
Chart of Science	515
Analysis of Passions	515
Good and Evil relative Terms	515
His Paradoxes	515
His Notion of Love	516
Curiosity	516
Difference of Intellectual Capacities	516
Wit and Fancy	517
Differences in the Passions	517
Madness	517
Unmeaning Language	517
Manners	517
Ignorances and Prejudice	518
His Theory of Religion	518
Its supposed Sources	518
CHAPTER XXI.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Casuistical Writers	521
Importance of Confession	521
Necessity of Rules for the Confessor	521
Increase of Casuistical Literature	521
Distinction of subjective and objective Morality	522
Directory Office of the Confessor	522
Difficulties of Casuistry	522
Strict and Lax Schemes of it	523
Convenience of the latter	523
Favoured by the Jesuits	523
The Causes of this	523
Extravagance of the strict Casuists	524
Opposite Faults of Jesuits	524
Suarez, De Legibus	524
Titles of his Ten Books	524
Heads of the Second Book	525
Character of such Scholastic Treatises	525
Quotations of Suarez	525
His Definition of Eternal Law	526
Whether God is a Legislator	526
Whether God could permit or commend wrong Actions	527
English Casuists—Perkins—Hall	527
Selden, De Jure Naturali Juxta Hebræos	528
Jewish Theory of Natural Law	528
Seven Precepts of the Sons of Noah	528
Character of Selden’s Work	528
Grotius and Hobbes	528
Charron on Wisdom	[29]
La Mothe le Vayer—his Dialogues	529
Bacon’s Essays	529
Their Excellence	530
Feltham’s Resolves	530
Browne’s Religio Medici	531
Selden’s Table Talk	532
Osborn’s Advice to his Son	532
John Valentine Andrax	532
Abandonment of Anti-Monarchical Theories	533
Political Literature becomes historical	533
Bellenden De Statu	534
Campanella’s Politics	534
La Mothe le Vayer	534
Naude’s Coups d’Etat	534
Patriarchal Theory of Government	534
Refuted by Suarez	535
His Opinion of Law	535
Bacon	536
Political Economy	536
Serra on the Means of obtaining Money without Mines	537
His Causes of Wealth	537
His Praise of Venice	537
Low Rate of Exchange not essential to wealth	587
Hobbes.—His Political Works	538
Analysis of his Three Treatises	538
Civil Jurists of this period	543
Suarez on Laws	544
Grotius—De Jure Belli et Pacis	544
Success of this Work	544
Its Originality	545
Its Motive and Object	545
His Authorities	545
Foundation of Natural Law	546
Positive Law	546
Perfect and Imperfect Rights	546
Lawful Cases of War	546
Resistance by Subjects unlawful	547
All Men naturally have Right of War	547
Right of Self-Defence	548
Its Origin and Limitations	548
Right of Occupancy	549
Relinquishment of it	549
Right over Persons—By Generation	549
By Consent	549
In Marriage	549
In Commonwealths	549
Right of Alienating Subjects	549
Alienation by Testament	550
Rights of Property by Positive Law	550
Extinction of Rights	550
Some Casuistical Questions	550
Promises	550
Contracts	551
Considered ethically	551
Promissory Oaths	552
Engagements of Kings towards Subjects	552
Public Treaties	552
Their Interpretation	553
Obligation to repair Injury	553
Rights by Law of Nations	554
Those of Ambassadors	554
Right of Sepulture	554
Punishments	554
Their Responsibility	555
Insufficient Causes of War	556
Duty of avoiding it	556
And Expediency	556
War for the sake of other Subjects	556
Allies	556
Strangers	556
None to Serve in an Unjust War	556
Rights in War	557
Use of Deceit	557
Rules and Customs of Nations	557
Reprisals	557
Declarations of War	557
Rights by law of nations over Enemies	558
Prisoners become Slaves	558
Rights of Postliminium	558
Moral Limitation of Rights in War	558
Moderation required as to spoil	559
And as to Prisoners	559
Also in Conquest	559
And in Restitution to right Owners	559
Promises to Enemies and Pirates	559
Treaties concluded by competent Authority	560
Matters relating to them	561
Truces and Conventions	561
Those of Private persons	561
Objections to Grotius made by Paley unreasonable	561
Reply of Mackintosh	561
Censures of Stewart	562
Answer to them	562
Grotius vindicated against Rousseau	565
His Arrangement	565
His Defects	565
CHAPTER XXII.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Low Estimation of the Seicentisti	566
Not quite so great as formerly	566
Praise of them by Rubbi	566
Also by Salfi	566
Adone of Marini	567
Its Character	567
And Popularity	567
Secchia Rapita of Tassoni	568
Chiabrera	569
His Followers	569
The Styles of Spanish Poetry	570
The Romances	570
The Brothers Argensola	570
Villegas	571
Quevedo	571
Defects of Taste in Spanish Verse	571
Pedantry and far-fetched Allusions	572
Gongora	572
The Schools formed by him	573
Malherbe	573
Criticisms upon his Poetry	574
Satires of Regnier	574
Racan—Maynard	574
Voiture	574
Sarrasin	575
Low state of German Literature	575
Literary Societies	575
Opitz	575
His Followers	576
Dutch Poetry	576
Spiegel	576
Hooft-Cats-Vondel	577
Danish Poetry	577
English Poets numerous in this age	577
Phineas Fletcher	577
Giles Fletcher	578
Philosophical Poetry	578
Lord Brooke	578
Denham’s Cooper’s Hill	579
Poets called Metaphysical	579
Donne	580
Crashaw	580
Cowley	580
Johnson’s Character of him	580
Narrative Poets—Daniel	580
Drayton’s Polyolbion	581
Browne’s Britannia’s Pastorals	581
Sir John Beaumont	582
Davenant’s Gondibert	582
Sonnets of Shakspeare	582
The person whom they address	583
Sonnets of Drummond and others	584
Carew	584
Ben Jonson	585
Wither	585
Habington	585
Earl of Pembroke	585
Suckling	586
Lovelace	586
Herrick	586
Milton	586
His Comus	586
Lycidas	587
Allegro and Penseroso	587
Ode on the Nativity	588
His Sonnets	588
Anonymous Poetry	588
Latin Poets of France	588
In Germany and Italy	588
In Holland—Heinsius	589
Casimir Sarbievius	589
Barlæus	589
Balde—Greek Poems of Heinsius	590
Latin Poets of Scotland—Jonston’s Psalms	590
Owen’s Epigrams	590
Alabaster’s Roxana	590
May’s Supplement to Lucan	590
Milton’s Latin Poems	591
CHAPTER XXIII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of the Italian Theatre	591
Filli de Sciro	592
Translations of Spanish Dramas	592
Extemporaneous Comedy	593
Spanish Stage	593
Calderon—Number of his Pieces	593
His Comedies	593
La Vida es Sueno	594
A Secreto agravio secreta vengança	595
Style of Calderon	595
His Merits sometimes overrated	596
Plays of Hardy	596
The Cid	597
Style of Corneille	598
Les Horaces	598
Cimia	598
Polyeucte	599
Rodogune	599
Pompey	599
Heraclius	599
Nicomède	600
Faults and Beauties of Corneille	600
Le Menteur	600
Other French Tragedies	600
Wenceslas of Rotron	600
Popularity of the Stage under Elizabeth	601
Number of Theatres	601
Encouraged by James	601
General Taste for the Stage	601
Theatres closed by the Parliament	602
Shakspeare’s Twelfth Night	602
Merry Wives of Windsor	603
Measure for Measure	604
Lear	604
Timon of Athens	604
Pericles	605
His Roman Tragedies—Julius Cæsar	606
Antony and Cleopatra	606
Coriolanus	606
His Retirement and Death	607
Greatness of his Genius	607
His Judgment	607
His Obscurity	608
His Popularity	608
Critics on Shakspeare	609
Ben Jonson	609
The Alchemist	609
Volpone, or The Fox	610
The Silent Woman	610
Sad Shepherd	611
Beaumont and Fletcher	611
Corrupt State of their Text	611
The Maid’s Tragedy	611
Philaster	612
King and no King	613
The Elder Brother	613
The Spanish Curate	613
The Custom of the Country	613
The Loyal Subject	613
Beggar’s Bush	613
The Scornful Lady	614
Valentinian	614
The Two Noble Kinsmen	615
The Faithful Shepherdess	615
Rule a Wife, and have a Wife	616
Some other Plays	616
Origin of Fletcher’s Plays	616
Defects of their plots	616
Their Sentiments and Style Dramatic	617
Their Characters	617
Their Tragedies	617
Inferior to their Comedies	618
Their Female Characters	618
Massinger—Nature of his Dramas	619
His Delineations of Character	619
His Subjects	619
Beauty of His Style	620
Inferiority of his Comic Powers	620
Some of his Tragedies particularized	620
And of his other Plays	620
Ford	621
Shirley	621
Heywood	622
Webster	622
His Duchess of Malfy	622
Vittoria Corombona	622
CHAPTER XXIV.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of Taste in Italy	623
Style of Galileo	624
Bentivoglio	624
Boccalini’s News from Parnassus	624
His Pietra del Paragone	625
Terrante Pallavicino	625
Dictionary Delia Crusca	625
Grammatical Works—Buonmattei—Bartoli	626
Tassoni’s Remarks on Petrarch	626
Galileo’s Remarks on Tasso	626
Sforza Pallavicino	626
And other Critical Writers	626
Prolusiones of Strada	627
Spanish Prose—Gracian	627
French Prose—Du Vair	627
Balzac	628
Character of his Writings	628
His Letters	628
Voiture—Hotel Rambouillet	629
Establishment of French Academy	630
Its objects and Constitution	630
It publishes a Critique on the Cid	631
Vaugelas’s Remarks on the French Language	631
La Mothe le Vayer	632
Legal Speeches of Patru	632
And of Le Maistre	632
Improvement in English Style	633
Earl of Essex	633
Knolles’s History of the Turks	634
Raleigh’s History of the World	635
Daniel’s History of England	635
Bacon	635
Milton	636
Clarendon	636
The Icon Basilice	636
Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy	637
Earle’s Characters	637
Overbury’s Characters	637
Jonson’s Discoveries	637
Publication of Don Quixote	638
Its Reputation	638
New Views of its Design	638
Probably erroneous	638
Difference between the two Parts	639
Excellence of this Romance	639
Minor Novels of Cervantes	639
Other Novels—Spanish	639
And Italian	639
French Romances—Astrée	639
Heroic Romances—Gomberville	640
Calprenède	640
Scuderi	641
Argenis of Barclay	641
His Euphormis	643
Campanella’s City of the Sun	643
Few Books of Fiction in England	643
Mundus Alter et Idem of Hall	644
Godwin’s Journey to the Moon	644
Howell’s Dodona’s Grove	644
Adventures of Baron de Fænesle	644
CHAPTER XXV.
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
State of Science in 16th Century	645
Tediousness of Calculations	645
Napier’s Invention of Logarithms	645
Their Nature	645
Property of Numbers discovered by Stifelius	645
Extended to Magnitudes	646
By Napier	646
Tables of Napier and Briggs	646
Kepler’s New Geometry	647
Its Difference from the Ancient	647
Adopted by Galileo	648
Extended by Cavalieri	648
Applied to the Ratios of Solids	648
Problem of the Cycloid	648
Progress of Algebra	649
Briggs—Girard	649
Harriott	649
Descartes	650
His Application of Algebra to Curves	650
Suspected Plagiarism from Harriot	650
Fermat	651
Algebraic Geometry not successful at first	652
Astronomy—Kepler	652
Conjectures as to Comets	652
Galileo’s Discovery of Jupiter’s Satellites	653
Other Discoveries by him	653
Spots of the Sun discovered	653
Copernican System held by Galileo	654
His Dialogues, and Persecution	654
Descartes alarmed by this	655
Progress of Copernican System	655
Descartes denies General Gravitation	655
Cartesian Theory of the World	655
Transits of Mercury and Venus	656
Laws of Mechanics	656
Statics of Galileo	657
His Dynamics	657
Mechanics of Descartes	658
Law of Motion laid down by Descartes	658
Also those of Compound Forces	659
Other Discoveries in Mechanics	659
In Hydrostatics and Pneumatics	659
Optics—Discoveries of Kepler	660
Invention of the Telescope	660
Of the Microscope	660
Antonio de Dominis	660
Dioptrics of Descartes—Law of Refraction	661
Disputed by Fermat	661
Curves of Descartes	661
Theory of the Rainbow	661
CHAPTER XXVI.
HISTORY OF SOME OTHER PROVINCES OF LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Aldrovandus	662
Clusius	662
Rio and Marcgraf	662
Jonston	662
Fabricius on the Language of Brutes	663
Botany—Columna	664
John and Gaspar Bauhin	664
Parkinson	664
Valves of the Veins discovered	665
Theory of the Blood’s Circulation	665
Sometimes ascribed to Servetus	665
To Columbus	666
And to Cæsalpin	666
Generally unknown before Harvey	667
His Discovery	667
Unjustly doubted to be Original	667
Harvey’s Treatise on Generation	668
Lacteals discovered by Asellius	668
Optical Discoveries of Scheiner	669
Medicine—Van Helmont	669
Diffusion of Hebrew	669
Language not studied in the best method	669
The Buxtorfs	670
Vowel Points rejected by Cappel	670
Hebrew Scholars	671
Chaldee and Syriac	671
Arabic	671
Erpenius	671
Golius	671
Other Eastern Languages	672
Purchas’s Pilgrim	672
Olearius and Pietro della Valle	672
Lexicon of Ferrari	672
Maps of Blaew	672
Davila and Bentivoglio	673
Mendoza’s Wars of Granada	673
Mezeray	673
English Historians	673
English Histories	673
Universities	673
Bodleian Library founded	674
Casaubon’s Account of Oxford	674
Catalogue of Bodleian Library	674
Continental Libraries	675
Italian Academies	675
The Lincei	675
Prejudice for Antiquity diminished	676
Browne’s Vulgar Errors	677
Life and Character of Peiresc	677
CHAPTER XXVII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
James Frederic Gronovius	678
James Gronovius	679
Grævius	679
Isaac Vossius	679
Decline of German Learning	679
Spanheim	679
Jesuit Colleges in France	679
Port-Royal Writers—Lancelot	679
Latin Writers—Perizonius	680
Delphin Editions	680
Le Fevre and the Daciers	680
Henry Valois—Complaints of Decay of Learning	680
English Learning—Duport	681
Greek not much studied	681
Gataker’s Cinnus and Antoninus	681
Stanley’s Æschylus	682
Other English Philologers	682
Bentley	682
His Epistle to Mill	682
Dissertation on Phalaris	682
Disadvantages of Scholars in that Age	683
Thesauri of Grævius and of Gronovius	683
Fabretti	684
Numismatics, Spanheim—Vaillant	684
Chronology—Usher	684
Pezron	685
Marsham	685
CHAPTER XXVIII.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Decline of Papal Influence	685
Dispute of Louis XIV. with Innocent XI.	686
Four Articles of 1682	686
Dupin on the ancient Discipline	686
Dupin’s Ecclesiastical Library	687
Fleury’s Ecclesiastical History	687
His Dissertations	687
Protestant Controversy in France	688
Bossuet’s Exposition of Catholic Faith	688
His Conference with Claude	688
Correspondence with Molanus and Leibnitz	689
His Variations of Protestant Churches	690
Anglican Writings against Popery	690
Taylor’s Dissuasive	690
Barrow—Stillingfleet	690
Jansenius	691
Condemnation of his Augustinus in France	691
And at Rome	691
The Jansenists take a Distinction	692
And are Persecuted	692
Progress of Arminianism	692
Courcelles	693
Limborch	693
Le Clerc	693
Sancroft’s Fur Prædestinatus	693
Arminianism in England	694
Bull’s Harmonia Apostolica	694
Hammond—Locke—Wilkins	694
Socinians in England	695
Bull’s Defensio Fidei Nicenæ	695
Not Satisfactory to all	695
Mystics	696
Fenelon	696
Change in the Character of Theological Literature	696
Freedom of many Writings	696
Thoughts of Pascal	697
Vindications of Christianity	699
Progress of Tolerant Principles	700
Bayle’s Philosophical Commentary	700
Locke’s Letter on Toleration	700
French Sermons	701
Bourdaloue	701
Compared with Bossuet	702
Funeral Discourses of Bossuet	702
Fléchier	703
English Sermons—Barrow	703
South	704
Tillotson	704
Expository Theology	704
Pearson on the Creed	704
Simon’s Critical Histories	705
CHAPTER XXIX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Aristotelian Metaphysics	705
Their Decline. Thomas White	706
Logic	706
Stanley’s History of Philosophy	707
Gale’s Court of Gentiles	707
Cudworth’s Intellectual System	707
Its object	708
Sketch of it	708
His plastic nature	708
His account of old Philosophy	708
His Arguments against Atheism	709
More	709
Gassendi	710
His Logic	710
His Theory of Ideas	710
And of the Nature of the Soul	710
Distinguishes Ideas of Reflection	711
Also Intellect from Imagination	711
His Philosophy misunderstood by Stewart	712
Bernier’s Epitome of Gassendi	713
Process of Cartesian Philosophy	713
La Forge—Regis	714
Huet’s Censure of Cartesianism	715
Port-Royal Logic	716
Malebranche	717
His Style	717
Sketch of his Theory	717
Character of Malebranche	724
Compared with Pascal	724
Arnauld on True and False ideas	725
Norris	725
Pascal	725
Spinosa’s Ethics	726
Its general Originality	726
View of his Metaphysical Theory	727
Spinosa’s Theory of action and Passion	731
Character of Spinosism	732
Glanvil’s Scepsis Scientifica	733
His Plus Ultra	734
Dalgarno	735
Wilkins	736
Locke on Human Understanding	736
Its merits	736
Its Defects	737
Origin of Ideas according to Locke	737
Vague Use of the Word Idea	738
An Error as to Geometrical Figure	739
His Notions as to the Soul	740
And its Immateriality	740
His Love of Truth and Originality	741
Defended in two cases	742
His View of Lunatic Ideas	742
General Praise	743
Locke’s Conduct of Understanding	743
CHAPTER XXX.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Casuistry of the Jesuits	744
Pascal’s Provincial Letters	744
Their Truth questioned by some	744
Taylor’s Ductor Dubitantium	745
Its Character and Defects	745
Cudworth’s immutable Morality	745
Nicole—La Placette	746
Other Writers	746
Moral System of Spinosa	746
Cumberland’s De Legibus Naturæ	747
Analysis of Prolegomena	748
His Theory expanded afterwards	749
Remarks on Cumberland’s Theory	752
Puffendorf’s Law of Nature and Nations	753
Analysis of this Work	754
Puffendorf and Paley compared	757
Rochefoucault	757
La Bruyère	758
Education—Milton’s Tractrate	758
Locke on Education—Its merits	759
And Defects	759
Fenelon on Female Education	761
Puffendorf’s Theory of Politics	762
Politics of Spinosa	764
His Theory of a Monarchy	766
Amelot de la Houssaye	766
Harrington’s Oceana	766
Patriarcha of Filmer	767
Sydney’s Discourses on Government	767
Locke on Government	768
Observations on this Treatise	771
Avis auz Refugiéz, perhaps by Bayle	772
Political Economist’s	772
Mun on Foreign Trade	773
Child on Trade	773
Locke on the Coin	773
Statistical Tracts	774
Works of Leibnitz on Roman Law	775
Civil Jurists—Godefroy—Domat	775
Noodt of Usury	776
Law of Nations—Puffendorf	776
CHAPTER XXXI.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Improved Tone of Italian Poetry	776
Filicaja	777
Guidi	777
Menzini	778
Salvator Rosa—Redi	778
Other Poets	778
Christina’s Patronage of Letters	778
Society of Arcadians	778
La Fontaine	779
Character of his Fables	779
Boileau: His Epistles	780
His Art of Poetry	780
Comparison with Horace	780
The Lutrin	780
General Character of his Poetry	780
Lyric Poetry lighter than before	781
Benserade	781
Chaulieu	781
Pastoral Poetry	781
Segrais	781
Deshouliéres	781
Fontenelle	782
Bad Epic Poems	782
German Poetry	782
Waller	782
Butler’s Hudibras	783
Paradise Lost—Choice of Subject	783
Open to some Difficulties	783
Its Arrangement	783
Characters of Adam and Eve	784
He owes less to Homer than the Tragedians	784
Compared with Dante	784
Elevation of his Style	785
His Blindness	786
His Passion for Music	786
Faults in Paradise Lost	786
Its Progress to Fame	786
Paradise Regained	787
Samson Agonistes	787
Dryden—His earlier Poems	787
Absalom and Achitophel	788
Mac Flecknoe	788
The Hind and Panther	789
Its Singular Fable	789
Its Reasoning	789
The Fables	789
His Odes—Alexander’s Feast	790
His Translation of Virgil	790
Decline of Poetry from the Restoration	790
Some Minor Poets enumerated	790
Latin Poets of Italy	791
Ceva	791
Sergardi	791
Of France—Quillet	791
Menage	792
Rapin on Gardens	792
Santeul	793
Latin Poetry in England	793
CHAPTER XXXII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Italian and Spanish Drama	793
Racine’s first Tragedies	793
Andromaque	794
Britannicus	795
Berenice	795
Bajazet	795
Mithridate	796
Iphigénie	796
Phédre	797
Esther	797
Athalie	797
Racine’s Female Characters	798
Racine compared with Corneille	798
Beauty of his Style	798
Thomas Corneille—His Ariane	799
Manlius of La Fosse	799
Molière	799
L’Avare	799
L’Ecole des Femmes	800
Le Misanthrope	800
Les Femmes Savantes	801
Tartuffe	801
Bourgeois Gentilhomme—George Dandin	801
Character of Molière	802
Les Plaideurs of Racine	802
Regnard—Le Joueur	802
His Other Plays	803
Quinault—Boursault	803
Dancourt	803
Brueys	804
Operas of Quinault	804
Revival of the English Theatre	804
Change of Public Taste	804
Its Causes	805
Heroic Tragedies of Dryden	805
His later Tragedies	805
Don Sebastian	806
Spanish Friar	806
Otway	806
Southern	807
Lee	807
Congreve	807
Comedies of Charles II.’s Reign	807
Wycherley	808
Improvement after the Revolution	808
Congreve	808
Love for Love	808
His other Comedies	808
Farquhar—Vanbrugh	809
CHAPTER XXXIII.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Low State of Literature in Italy	809
Crescimbeni	810
Age of Louis XIV. in France	810
Fontenelle—his Character	810
His Dialogues of the Dead	811
Those of Fenelon	811
Fontenelle’s Plurality of Worlds	811
His History of Oracles	811
St. Evremond	812
Madame de Sevigné	812
The French Academy	812
French Grammars	813
Bouhour’s Entretiens d’Ariste et d’Eugène	813
Attacked by Barbier d’Ancour	814
La Manière de Bien Penser	815
Rapin’s Reflections on Eloquence and Poetry	815
His Parallel’s of Great Men	815
Bossu on Epic Poetry	816
Fontenelle’s Critical Writings	816
Preference of French Language to Latin	816
General Superiority of Ancients disputed	816
Charles Perrault	816
Fontenelle	817
Boileau’s Defence of Antiquity	817
First Reviews—Journal des Sçavans	817
Reviews Established by Bayle	818
Reviews Established by Le Clerc	818
Leipsic Acts	819
Bayle’s Thoughts on the Comet	819
His Dictionary	819
Baillet—Morhof	820
The Ana	820
English Style in this Period	820
Hobbes	821
Cowley	821
Evelyn	821
Dryden	821
His Essay on Dramatic Poesy	822
Improvements in his Style	823
His Critical Character	823
Rymer on Tragedy	823
Sir William Temple’s Essays	824
Style of Locke	824
Sir George Mackenzie’s Essays	824
Andrew Fletcher	824
Walton’s Complete Angler	824
Wilkins’ New World	824
Antiquity defended by Temple	825
Wotton’s Reflection’s	825
Quevedo’s Visions	825
French Heroic Romances	826
Novels of Madame La Fayette	826
Scarron’s Roman Comique	826
Cyrano de Bergerac	827
Segrais	827
Perrault	827
Hamilton	827
Télémaque of Fenelon	827
Deficiency of English Romances	828
Pilgrim’s Progress	828
Turkish Spy	829
Chiefly of English Origin	830
Swift’s Tale of a Tub	831
CHAPTER XXXIV.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND OTHER LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Reasons for omitting Mathematics	831
Academy del Cimento	831
Royal Society	832
Academy of Sciences at Paris	832
State of Chemistry	832
Becker	833
Boyle	833
His Metaphysical Works	833
Extract from one of them	833
His Merits in Physics and Chemistry	834
General Character of Boyle	834
Of Hooke and Others	834
Lemery	835
Slow Progress of Zoology	835
Before Ray	835
His Synopsis of Quadrupeds	835
Merits of this Work	835
Redi	836
Swammerdam	836
Lister	836
Comparative Anatomy	836
Botany	837
Jungius	837
Morison	837
Ray	837
Rivinus	838
Tournefort	838
Vegetable Physiology	839
Grew	839
His Anatomy of Plants	840
He discovers the Sexual System	840
Camerarius confirms this	840
Predecessors of Grew	840
Malpighi	840
Early Notions of Geology	840
Burnet’s Theory of Earth	840
Other Geologists	841
Protogæa of Leibnitz	841
Circulation of Blood Established	842
Willis—Vieussens	842
Malpighi	842
Other Anatomists	842
Medical Theories	843
Polyglott of Walton	843
Hottinger	844
Spencer	844
Bochart	844
Pococke	844
D’Herbelot	844
Hyde	844
Maps of the Sansons	844
De Lisle’s Map of the World	845
Voyages and Travels	845
Historians	845
De Solis	845
Memoirs of De Retz	845
Bossuet on Universal History	846
English Historical Works	846
Burnet	846
General Character of 17th Century	846
Conclusion	847

PREFACE.

The advantages of such a synoptical view of literature as displays its various departments in their simultaneous condition through an extensive period, and in their mutual dependency, seem too manifest to be disputed. And, as we possess little of this kind in our own language, I have been induced to undertake that to which I am in some respects, at least, very unequal, but which no more capable person, as far as I could judge, was likely to perform. In offering to the public this introduction to the literary history of three centuries—for I cannot venture to give it a title of more pretension—it is convenient to state my general secondary sources of information, exclusive of the acquaintance I possess with original writers; and, at the same time, by showing what has already been done, and what is left undone, to furnish a justification of my own undertaking.

The history of literature belongs to modern, and chiefly to almost recent times. The nearest approach to it that the ancients have left us is contained in a single chapter of Quintilian, the first of the tenth book, wherein he passes rapidly over the names and characters of the poets, orators, and historians of Greece and Rome. This, however, is but a sketch; and the valuable work of Diogenes Laertius preserves too little of chronological order to pass for a history of ancient philosophy, though it has supplied much of the materials for all that has been written on the subject.

In the sixteenth century, the great increase of publications, and the devotion to learning which distinguished that period, might suggest the scheme of a universal literary history. Conrad Gesner, than whom no one, by extent and variety of erudition, was more fitted for the labour, appears to have framed a plan of this kind. What he has published, the Bibliotheca Universalis, and the Pandectæ Universales, are, taken together, the materials that might have been thrown into an historical form; the one being an alphabetical catalogue of authors and their writings; the other a digested and minute index to all departments of knowledge, in twenty-one books, each divided into titles, with short references to the texts of works on every head in his comprehensive classification. The order of time is therefore altogether disregarded. Possevin, an Italian Jesuit, made somewhat a nearer approach to this in his Bibliotheca Selecta, published at Rome in 1593. Though his partitions are rather encyclopædic than historical, and his method, especially in the first volume, is chiefly argumentative, he gives under each chapter a nearly chronological catalogue of authors, and sometimes a short account of their works.

Lord Bacon, in the second book De Augmentis Scientiarum, might justly deny, notwithstanding these defective works of the preceding century, that any real history of letters had been written; and he compares that of the world, wanting this, to a statue of Polypheme deprived of his single eye. He traces the method of supplying this deficiency in one of those luminous and comprehensive passages which bear the stamp of his vast mind: the origin and antiquities of every science, the methods by which it has been taught, the sects and controversies it has occasioned, the colleges and academies in which it has been cultivated, its relation to civil government and common society, the physical or temporary causes which have influenced its condition, form, in his plan, as essential a part of such a history, as the lives of famous authors, and the books they have produced.

No one has presumed to fill up the outline which Bacon himself could but sketch; and most part of the seventeenth century passed away with few efforts on the part of the learned to do justice to their own occupation; for we can hardly make an exception for the Prodromus Historiæ Literariæ (Hamburg, 1659) of Lambecius, a very learned German, who, having framed a magnificent scheme of a universal history of letters, was able to carry it no farther than the times of Moses and Cadmus. But, in 1688, Daniel Morhof, professor at Kiel in Holstein, published his well-known Polyhistor, which received considerable additions in the next age at the hands of Fabricius, and is still found in every considerable library.

Morhof appears to have had the method of Possevin in some measure before his eyes; but the lapse of a century, so rich in erudition as the seventeenth, had prodigiously enlarged the sphere of literary history. The precise object, however, of the Polyhistor, as the word imports, is to direct, on the most ample plan, the studies of a single scholar. Several chapters, that seem digressive in an historical light, are to be defended by this consideration. In his review of books in every province of literature, Morhof adopts a sufficiently chronological order; his judgments are short, but usually judicious; his erudition so copious, that later writers have freely borrowed from, and, in many parts, added little to the enumeration of the Polyhistor. But he is far more conversant with writers in Latin than the modern languages; and, in particular, shows a scanty acquaintance with English literature.

Another century had elapsed, when the honour of first accomplishing a comprehensive synopsis of literary history in a more regular form than Morhof, was the reward of Andrès, a Spanish Jesuit, who, after the dissolution of his order, passed the remainder of his life in Italy. He published at Parma, in different years, from 1782 to 1799, his Origine Progresso e Stato attuale d’ogni Litteratura. The first edition is in five volumes quarto; but I have made use of that printed at Prato, 1806, in twenty octavo volumes. Andrès, though a Jesuit, or perhaps because a Jesuit, accommodated himself in some measure to the tone of the age wherein his book appeared, and is always temperate, and often candid. His learning is very extensive in surface, and sometimes minute and curious, but not, generally speaking, profound; his style is flowing, but diffuse and indefinite; his characters of books have a vagueness unpleasant to those who seek for precise notions; his taste is correct, but frigid; his general views are not injudicious, but display a moderate degree of luminousness or philosophy. This work is, however, an extraordinary performance, embracing both ancient and modern literature in its full extent, and, in many parts, with little assistance from any former publication of the kind. It is far better known on the Continent than in England, where I have not frequently seen it quoted; nor do I believe it is common in our private libraries.

A few years after the appearance of the first volumes of Andrès, some of the most eminent among the learned of Germany projected a universal history of modern arts and sciences on a much larger scale. Each single province, out of eleven, was deemed sufficient for the labours of one man, if they were to be minute and exhaustive of the subject: among others, Bouterwek undertook poetry and polite letters; Buhle speculative philosophy; Kästner the mathematical sciences; Sprengel anatomy and medicine; Heeren classical philology. The general survey of the whole seems to have been assigned to Eichhorn. So vast a scheme was not fully executed; but we owe to it some standard works, to which I have been considerably indebted. Eichhorn published, in 1796 and 1799, two volumes, intended as the beginning of a General History of the Cultivation and Literature of modern Europe, from the twelfth to the eighteenth century. But he did not confine himself within the remoter limit; and his second volume, especially, expatiates on the dark ages that succeeded the fall of the Roman empire. In consequence, perhaps, of this diffuseness, and also of the abandonment, for some reason with which I am unacquainted, of a large portion of the original undertaking, Eichhorn prosecuted this work no farther in its original form. But, altering slightly its title, he published, some years afterwards, an independent universal “History of Literature” from the earliest ages to his own. This is comprised in six volumes, the first having appeared in 1805, the last in 1811.