CHAPTER I.
ON THE GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END OF THEFOURTEENTH CENTURY.
Page
Retrospect of Learning in Middle Ages Necessary 1
Loss of learning in Fall of Roman Empire 1
Boethius—his Consolation of Philosophy 1
Rapid Decline of Learning in Sixth Century 2
A Portion remains in the Church 2
Prejudices of the Clergy against Profane Learning 2
Their Uselessness in preserving it 3
First Appearances of reviving Learning in Ireland and England 3
Few Schools before the Age of Charlemagne 3
Beneficial Effects of those Established by him 4
The Tenth Century more progressive than usually supposed 4
Want of Genius in the Dark Ages 5
Prevalence of bad Taste 5
Deficiency of poetical Talent 5
Imperfect State of Language may account for this 6
Improvement at beginning of Twelfth Century 6
Leading Circumstances in Progress of Learning 6
Origin of the University of Paris 6
Modes of treating the Science of Theology 6
Scholastic Philosophy—its Origin 7
Roscelin 7
Progress of Scholasticism; Increase of University of Paris 8
Universities founded 8
Oxford 8
Collegiate Foundations not derived from the Saracens 9
Scholastic Philosophy promoted by Mendicant Friars 9
Character of this Philosophy 10
It prevails least in Italy 10
Literature in Modern Languages 10
Origin of the French, Spanish, and Italian Languages 10
Corruption of colloquial Latin in the Lower Empire 11
Continuance of Latin in Seventh Century 12
It is changed to a new Language in Eighth and Ninth 12
Early Specimens of French 13
Poem on Boethius 13
Provençal Grammar 14
Latin retained in use longer in Italy 14
French of Eleventh Century 14
Metres of Modern Languages 15
Origin of Rhyme in Latin 16
Provençal and French Poetry 16
Metrical Romances—Havelok the Dane 18
Diffusion of French Language 19
German Poetry of Swabian Period 19
Decline of German Poetry 20
Poetry of France and Spain 21
Early Italian Language 22
Dante and Petrarch 22
Change of Anglo-Saxon to English 22
Layamon 23
Progress of English Language 23
English of the Fourteenth Century—Chaucer, Gower 24
General Disuse of French in England 24
State of European Languages about 1400 25
Ignorance of Reading and Writing in darker Ages 25
Reasons for supposing this to have diminished after 1100 26
Increased Knowledge of Writing in Fourteenth Century 27
Average State of Knowledge in England 27
Invention of Paper 28
Linen Paper when first used 28
Cotton Paper 28
Linen Paper as old as 1100 28
Known to Peter of Clugni 29
And in Twelfth and Thirteenth Century 29
Paper of mixed Materials 29
Invention of Paper placed by some too low 29
Not at first very important 30
Importance of Legal Studies 30
Roman Laws never wholly unknown 31
Irnerius—his first Successors 31
Their Glosses 31
Abridgements of Law—Accursius’s Corpus Glossatum 31
Character of early Jurists 32
Decline of Jurists after Accursius 32
Respect paid to him at Bologna 33
Scholastic Jurists—Bartolus 33
Inferiority of Jurists in Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 34
Classical Literature and Taste in dark Ages 34
Improvement in Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 34
Lanfranc and his Schools 35
Italy—Vocabulary of Papias 36
Influence of Italy upon Europe 36
Increased copying of Manuscripts 36
John of Salisbury 36
Improvement of Classical Taste in Twelfth Century 37
Influence of increased Number of Clergy 38
Decline of Classical Literature in Thirteenth Century 38
Relapse into Barbarism 38
No Improvement in Fourteenth Century—Richard of Bury 39
Library formed by Charles V. at Paris 39
Some Improvement in Italy during Thirteenth Century 40
Catholicon of Balbi 40
Imperfection of early Dictionaries 40
Restoration of Letters due to Petrarch 40
Character of his Style 41
His Latin Poetry 41
John of Ravenna 41
Gasparin of Barziza 42
CHAPTER II.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1400 TO 1440.
Zeal for Classical Literature in Italy 42
Poggio Bracciolini 42
Latin Style of that Age indifferent 43
Gasparin of Barziza 43
Merits of his Style 43
Victorin of Feltre 44
Leonard Aretin 44
Revival of Greek Language in Italy 44
Early Greek Scholars of Europe 44
Under Charlemagne and his Successors 45
In the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 45
In the Twelfth 46
In the Thirteenth 46
Little Appearance of it in the Fourteenth Century 47
Some Traces of Greek in Italy 47
Corruption of Greek Language itself 47
Character of Byzantine Literature 48
Petrarch and Boccace learn Greek 48
Few acquainted with the Language in their Time 49
It is taught by Chrysoloras about 1395 49
His Disciples 49
Translations from Greek into Latin 50
Public Encouragement delayed 51
But fully accorded before 1440 51
Emigration of learned Greeks to Italy 52
Causes of Enthusiasm for Antiquity in Italy 52
Advanced State of Society 52
Exclusive Study of Antiquity 53
Classical Learning in France low 53
Much more so in England 53
Library of Duke of Gloucester 54
Gerard Groot’s College at Deventer 54
Physical Sciences in Middle Ages 55
Arabian Numerals and Method 55
Proofs of them in Thirteenth Century 56
Mathematical Treatises 56
Roger Bacon 57
His Resemblance to Lord Bacon 57
English Mathematicians of Fourteenth Century 57
Astronomy 58
Alchemy 58
Medicine 58
Anatomy 58
Encyclopædic Works of Middle Ages 58
Vincent of Beauvais 59
Berchorius 59
Spanish Ballads 59
Metres of Spanish Poetry 60
Consonant and assonant Rhymes 60
Nature of the Glosa 61
The Cancionero General 61
Bouterwek’s Character of Spanish Songs 61
John II. 62
Poets of his Court 62
Charles, Duke of Orleans 62
English Poetry 62
Lydgate 63
James I. of Scotland 63
Restoration of Classical Learning due to Italy 63
Character of Classical Poetry lost in Middle Ages 64
New School of Criticism in Modern Languages 64
Effect of Chivalry on Poetry 64
Effect of Gallantry towards Women 64
Its probable Origin 64
It is shown in old Teutonic Poetry; but appears in the Stories of Arthur 65
Romances of Chivalry of two Kinds 65
Effect of Difference of Religion upon Poetry 66
General Tone of Romance 66
Popular Moral Fictions 66
Exclusion of Politics from Literature 67
Religious Opinions 67
Attacks on the Church 67
Three Lines of Religious Opinions in Fifteenth Century 67
Treatise de Imitatione Christi 68
Scepticism—Defences of Christianity 69
Raimond de Sebonde 69
His Views misunderstood 69
His real Object 70
Nature of his Arguments 70
CHAPTER III.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1440 TO THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
The year 1440 not chosen as an Epoch 71
Continual Progress of Learning 71
Nicolas V. 71
Justice due to his Character 72
Poggio on the Ruins of Rome 72
Account of the East, by Conti 72
Laurentius Valla 72
His Attack on the Court of Rome 72
His Treatise on the Latin Language 73
Its Defects 73
Heeren’s Praise of it 73
Valla’s Annotations on the New Testament 73
Fresh Arrival of Greeks in Italy 74
Platonists and Aristotelians 74
Their Controversy 74
Marsilius Ficinus 75
Invention of Printing 75
Block Books 75
Gutenberg and Costar’s Claims 75
Progress of the Invention 76
First printed Bible 76
Beauty of the Book 77
Early printed Sheets 77
Psalter of 1547—Other early Books 77
Bible of Pfister 77
Greek first taught at Paris 78
Leave unwillingly granted 78
Purbach—his Mathematical Discoveries 78
Other Mathematicians 78
Progress of Printing in Germany 79
Introduced into France 79
Caxton’s first Works 79
Printing exercised in Italy 79
Lorenzo de’ Medici 80
Italian Poetry of Fifteenth Century 80
Italian Prose of same Age 80
Giostra of Politian 80
Paul II. persecutes the Learned 81
Mathias Corvinus 81
His Library 81
Slight Signs of Literature in England 81
Paston Letters 82
Low Condition of Public Libraries 83
Rowley 83
Clotilde de Surville 83
Number of Books printed in Italy 83
First Greek printed 84
Study of Antiquities 84
Works on that Subject 84
Publications in Germany 85
In France 85
In England, by Caxton 85
In Spain 85
Translations of Scripture 85
Revival of Literature in Spain 86
Character of Labrixa 86
Library of Lorenzo 87
Classics corrected and explained 87
Character of Lorenzo 87
Prospect from his Villa at Fiesole 87
Platonic Academy 88
Disputationes Camaldulenses of Landino 88
Philosophical Dialogues 89
Paulus Cortesius 89
Schools in Germany 89
Study of Greek at Paris 91
Controversy of Realists and Nominalists 91
Scotus 91
Ockham 92
Nominalists in University of Paris 92
Low State of Learning in England 92
Mathematics 93
Regiomontanus 93
Arts of Delineation 93
Maps 94
Geography 94
Greek printed in Italy 94
Hebrew printed 95
Miscellanies of Politian 95
Their Character, by Heeren 95
His Version of Herodian 96
Cornucopia of Perotti 96
Latin Poetry of Politian 96
Italian Poetry of Lorenzo 97
Pulci 97
Character of Morgante Maggiore 97
Platonic Theology of Ficinus 98
Doctrine of Averroes on the Soul 98
Opposed by Ficinus 99
Desire of Man to explore Mysteries 99
Various Methods employed 99
Reason and Inspiration 99
Extended Inferences from Sacred Books 99
Confidence in Traditions 100
Confidence in Individuals as inspired 100
Jewish Cabbala 100
Picus of Mirandola 101
His Credulity in the Cabbala 101
His Literary Performances 102
State of Learning in Germany 102
Agricola 103
Renish Academy 103
Reuchlin 104
French Language and Poetry 104
European Drama 104
Latin 104
Orfeo of Politian 105
Origin of Dramatic Mysteries 105
Their early Stage 105
Extant English Mysteries 105
First French Theatre 106
Theatrical Machinery 107
Italian Religious Dramas 107
Moralities 107
Farces 107
Mathematical Works 107
Leo Baptista Alberti 108
Lionardo da Vinci 108
Aldine Greek Editions 109
Decline of Learning in Italy 110
Hermolaus Barbarus 111
Mantuan 111
Pontanus 111
Neapolitan Academy 112
Boiardo 112
Francesco Bello 113
Italian Poetry near the End of the Century 113
Progress of Learning in France and Germany 113
Erasmus—his Diligence 114
Budæus—his early Studies 114
Latin not well written in France 115
Dawn of Greek Learning in England 115
Erasmus comes to England 116
He publishes his Adages 116
Romantic Ballads of Spain 116
Pastoral Romances 117
Portuguese Lyric Poetry 117
German popular Books 117
Historical Works 118
Philip de Comines 118
Algebra 118
Events from 1490 to 1500 119
Close of Fifteenth Century 119
Its Literature nearly neglected 119
Summary of its Acquisitions 119
Their Imperfection 120
Number of Books printed 120
Advantages already reaped from Printing 120
Trade of Bookselling 121
Books sold by Printers 121
Price of Books 122
Form of Books 122
Exclusive Privileges 122
Power of Universities over Bookselling 123
Restraints on Sale of Printed Books 124
Effect of Printing on the Reformation 124
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1500 TO 1520.
Decline of Learning in Italy 125
Press of Aldus 125
His Academy 126
Dictionary of Calepio 126
Books printed in Germany 126
First Greek Press at Paris 126
Early Studies of Melanchthon 127
Learning in England 127
Erasmus and Budæus 128
Study of Eastern Languages 128
Dramatic Works 128
Calisto and Melibœa 128
Its Character 129
Juan de la Enzina 129
Arcadia of Sanazzaro 129
Asolani of Bembo 130
Dunbar 130
Anatomy of Zerbi 130
Voyages of Cadamosto 130
Leo X., his Patronage of Letters 131
Roman Gymnasium 131
Latin Poetry 132
Italian Tragedy 132
Sophonisba of Trissino 132
Rosmunda of Rucellai 132
Comedies of Ariosto 132
Books printed in Italy 133
Cælius Rhodiginus 133
Greek printed in France and Germany 133
Greek Scholars in these Countries 134
College at Alcala and Louvain 134
Latin Style in France 135
Greek Scholars in England 135
Mode of Teaching in Schools 136
Few Classical Works printed here 137
State of Learning in Scotland 137
Utopia of More 137
Inconsistency in his Opinions 138
Learning restored in France 138
Jealousy of Erasmus and Budæus 138
Character of Erasmus 139
His Adages severe on Kings 139
Instances in illustration 140
His Greek Testament 142
Patrons of Letters in Germany 142
Resistance to Learning 143
Unpopularity of the Monks 145
The Book excites Odium 145
Erasmus attacks the Monks 145
Their Contention with Reuchlin 145
Origin of the Reformation 146
Popularity of Luther 147
Simultaneous Reform by Zwingle 147
Reformation prepared beforehand 147
Dangerous Tenets of Luther 148
Real Explanation of them 149
Orlando Furioso 150
Its Popularity 150
Want of Seriousness 150
A Continuation of Boiardo 150
In some Points inferior 151
Beauties of its Style 151
Accompanied with Faults 151
Its Place as a Poem 152
Amadis de Gaul 152
Gringore 152
Hans Sachs 152
Stephen Hawes 153
Change in English Language 153
Skelton 154
Oriental Languages 154
Pomponatius 155
Raymond Lully 155
His Method 155
Peter Martyr’s Epistles 156
CHAPTER V.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Superiority of Italy in Taste 157
Admiration of Antiquity 158
Sadolet 158
Bembo 159
Ciceronianus of Erasmus 159
Scaliger’s Invective against it 160
Editions of Cicero 160
Alexander ab Alexandro 160
Works on Roman Antiquities 161
Greek less Studied in Italy 161
Schools of Classical Learning 161
Budæus—his Commentaries on Greek 161
Their Character 162
Greek Grammars and Lexicons 162
Editions of Greek Authors 163
Latin Thesaurus of R. Stephens 163
Progress of Learning in France 164
Learning in Spain 165
Effects of Reformation on Learning 165
Sturm’s Account of German Schools 165
Learning in Germany 166
In England—Linacre 166
Lectures in the Universities 166
Greek perhaps Taught to Boys 167
Teaching of Smith at Cambridge 167
Succeeded by Cheke 168
Ascham’s Character of Cambridge 168
Wood’s Account of Oxford 168
Education of Edward and his Sisters 169
The Progress of Learning is still slow 169
Want of Books and Public Libraries 169
Destruction of Monasteries no Injury to Learning 169
Ravisius Textor 170
Conrad Gesner 170
CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Progress of the Reformation 171
Interference of Civil Power 171
Excitement of Revolutionary Spirit 172
Growth of Fanaticism 172
Differences of Luther and Zwingle 172
Confession of Augsburg 173
Conduct of Erasmus 173
Estimate of it 174
His Controversy with Luther 174
Character of his Epistles 176
His Alienation from the Reformers increases 176
Appeal of the Reformers to the Ignorant 176
Parallel of those Times with the Present 177
Calvin 177
His Institutes 177
Increased Differences among Reformers 178
Reformed Tenets spread in England 178
In Italy 178
Italian Heterodoxy 179
Its Progress in the Literary Classes 180
Servetus 180
Arianism in Italy 181
Protestants in Spain and Low Countries 181
Order of Jesuits 181
Their Popularity 181
Council of Trent 182
Its Chief Difficulties 182
Character of Luther 182
Theological Writings—Erasmus 183
Melanchthon—Romish Writers 183
This Literature nearly forgotten 184
Sermons 184
Spirit of the Reformation 184
Limits of Private Judgment 185
Passions instrumental in Reformation 185
Establishment of new Dogmatism 186
Editions of Scripture 186
Translations of Scripture 186
In English 187
In Italy and Low Countries 187
Latin Translations 187
French Translations 188
CHAPTER VII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE, MORAL, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, AND OF JURISPRUDENCE, INEUROPE, FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Logic included under this head 188
Slow Defeat of Scholastic Philosophy 188
It is sustained by the Universities and Regulars 188
Commentators on Aristotle 188
Attack of Vives on Scholastics 189
Contempt of them in England 189
Veneration for Aristotle 189
Melanchthon countenances him 189
His own Philosophical Treatises 190
Aristotelians of Italy 190
University of Paris 190
New Logic of Ramus 190
It meets with unfair treatment 191
Its Merits and Character 191
Buhle’s account of it 191
Paracelsus 191
His Impostures 192
And Extravagancies 192
Cornelius Agrippa 192
His pretended Philosophy 193
His Sceptical Treatise 193
Cardan 193
Influence of Moral Writers 194
Cortegiano of Castiglione 194
Marco Aurelio of Guevara 194
His Menosprecio di Corte 194
Perez d’Oliva 195
Ethical Writings of Erasmus and Melanchthon 195
Sir T. Elyot’s Governor 195
Severity of Education 196
He seems to avoid Politics 196
Nicholas Machiavel 196
His motives in writing the Prince 197
Some of his Rules not immoral 197
But many dangerous 197
Its only Palliation 198
His Discourses on Livy 198
Their leading Principles 198
Their Use and Influence 199
His History of Florence 199
Treatises on Venetian Government 199
Calvin’s Political Principles 199
Jurisprudence confined to Roman Law 200
The Laws not well arranged 200
Adoption of the entire System 200
Utility of General Learning to Lawyers 200
Alciati—his Reform of Law 201
Opposition to him 201
Agustino 201
CHAPTER VIII.
HISTORY OF THE LITERATURE OF TASTE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Poetry of Bembo 201
Its Beauties and Defects 202
Character of Italian Poetry 202
Alamanni 202
Vittoria Colonna 202
Satires of Ariosto and Alamanni 203
Alamanni 203
Rucellai 203
Trissino 203
Berni 203
Spanish Poets 204
Boscan and Garcilasso 204
Mendoza 204
Saa di Miranda 205
Ribeyro 205
French Poetry 205
Marot 206
Its Metrical Structure 206
German Poetry 206
Hans Sachs 206
German Hymn 206
Theuerdanks of Pfintzing 206
English Poetry—Lyndsay 206
Wyatt and Surrey 207
Dr. Nott’s Character of them 207
Perhaps rather exaggerated 208
Surrey improves our versification 208
Introduces Blank Verse 208
Dr. Nott’s Hypothesis as to his Metre 208
It seems too extensive 209
Politeness of Wyatt and Surrey 209
Latin Poetry 210
Sannazarius 210
Vida 210
Fracastorius 210
Latin Verse not to be disdained 210
Other Latin Poets in Italy 211
In Germany 211
Italian Comedy 211
Machiavel 211
Aretin 211
Tragedy 212
Sperone 212
Cinthio 212
Spanish Drama 212
Torres Naharro 212
Lope de Rueda 212
Gil Vicente 213
Mysteries and Moralities in France 213
German Theatre—Hans Sachs 213
Moralities and Similar Plays in England 214
They are turned to religious Satire 214
Latin Plays 214
First English Comedy 215
Romances of Chivalry 215
Novels 215
Rabelais 216
Contest of Latin and Italian Languages 216
Influence of Bembo in this 217
Apology for Latinists 217
Character of the Controversy 217
Life of Bembo 217
Character of Italian and Spanish Style 218
English Writers 218
More 218
Ascham 218
Italian Criticism 218
Bembo 218
Grammarians and Critics in France 219
Orthography of Meigret 219
Cox’s Art of Rhetoric 219
CHAPTER IX.
ON THE SCIENTIFIC AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Geometrical Treatises 220
Fernel Rhœticus 220
Cardan and Tartaglia 220
Cubic Equations 220
Beauty of the Discovery 221
Cardan’s other Discoveries 221
Imperfections of Algebraic Language 222
Copernicus 222
Revival of Greek Medicine 223
Linacre and other Physicians 223
Medical Innovators 224
Paracelsus 224
Anatomy 224
Berenger 224
Vesalius 224
Portal’s Account of him 225
His Human Dissections 225
Fate of Vesalius 225
Other Anatomists 225
Imperfection of the Science 225
Botany—Botanical Gardens 226
Ruel 226
Fuchs 226
Matthioli 226
Low State of Zoology 226
Agricola 227
Hebrew 227
Elias Levita—Pellican 227
Arabic and Oriental Literature 227
Geography of Grynæus 228
Apianus 228
Munster 228
Voyages 228
Oviedo 228
Historical Works 228
Italian Academies 229
They pay regard to the Language 229
Their fondness for Petrarch 229
They become numerous 229
Their Distinctions 230
Evils connected with them 230
They succeed less in Germany 230
Libraries 230
CHAPTER X.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Progress of Philology 231
First Editions of Classics 231
Change in Character of Learning 232
Cultivation of Greek 232
Principal Scholars—Turnebus 232
Petrus Victorius 233
Muretus 233
Gruter’s Thesaurus Criticus 234
Editions of Greek and Latin Authors 235
Tacitus of Lipsius 235
Horace of Lambinus 235
Of Cruquius 236
Henry Stephens 236
Lexicon of Constantin 237
Thesaurus of Stephens 237
Abridged by Scapula 238
Hellenismus of Caninius 239
Vergara’s Grammar 239
Grammars of Ramus and Sylburgius 239
Camerarius—Canter—Robortellus 240
Editions by Sylburgius 241
Neander 241
Gesner 241
Decline of Taste in Germany 242
German Learning 242
Greek Verses of Rhodomanu 242
Learning Declines 243
Except in Catholic Germany 243
Philological Works of Stephens 243
Style of Lipsius 244
Minerva of Sanctius 244
Orations of Muretus 244
Panegyric of Ruhnkenius 244
Defects of his Style 245
Epistles of Manutius 245
Care of the Italian Latinists 245
Perpinianus—Osorius—Maphœus 246
Buchanan—Haddon 246
Sigonius, De Consolatione 246
Decline of Taste and Learning in Italy 247
Joseph Scaliger 247
Isaac Casaubon 248
General Result 249
Learning in England under Edward and Mary 249
Revival under Elizabeth 249
Greek Lectures at Cambridge 250
Few Greek Editions in England 250
School Books enumerated 250
Greek taught in Schools 251
Greek better known after 1580 251
Editions of Greek 252
And of Latin Classics 252
Learning lower than in Spain 252
Improvement at the End of the Century. 253
Learning in Scotland 253
Latin little used in Writing 253
Early Works on Antiquities 254
P. Manutius on Roman Laws 254
Manutius, De Civitate 254
Panvinius—Sigonius 255
Gruchius 255
Sigonius on Athenian Polity 256
Patrizzi and Lipsius on Roman Militia 256
Lipsius and other Antiquaries 256
Saville on Roman Militia 257
Numismatics 257
Mythology 257
Scaliger’s Chronology 258
Julian Period 258
CHAPTER XI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Diet of Augsburg in 1555 259
Progress of Protestantism 259
Its Causes 260
Wavering of Catholic Princes 260
Extinguished in Italy and Spain 260
Reaction of Catholicity 260
Especially in Germany 261
Discipline of the Clergy 261
Influence of Jesuits 261
Their Progress 262
Their Colleges 262
Jesuit Seminary at Rome 262
Patronage of Gregory XIII. 262
Conversions in Germany and France 263
Causes of this Reaction 263
A rigid Party in the Church 264
Its Efforts at Trent 264
No Compromise in Doctrine 265
Consultation of Cassander 265
Bigotry of Protestant Churches 266
Tenets of Melanchthon 266
A Party hostile to him 267
Form of Concord, 1576 267
Controversy raised by Baius 267
Treatise of Molina on Free will 268
Protestant Tenets 268
Trinitarian Controversy 268
Religious Intolerance 270
Castalio 270
Answered by Beza 271
Aconcio 271
Minus Celsus, Koornhert 271
Decline of Protestantism 272
Desertion of Lipsius 272
Jewell’s Apology 272
English Theologians 272
Bellarmin 273
Topics of Controversy changed 273
It turns on Papal Power 274
This upheld by the Jesuits 274
Claim to depose Princes 274
Bull against Elizabeth 274
And Henry IV. 275
Deposing Power owned in Spain 275
Asserted by Bellarmin 275
Methods of Theological Doctrine 275
Loci Communes 275
In the Protestant and Catholic Church 276
Catharin 276
Critical and Expository Writings 276
Ecclesiastical Historians 277
Le Clerc’s Character of them 277
Deistical Writers 277
Wierus, De Præstigiis 278
Scot on Witchcraft 278
Authenticity of Vulgate 278
Latin Versions and Editions by Catholics 278
By Protestants 279
Versions into Modern Languages 279
CHAPTER XII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Predominance of Aristotelian Philosophy 279
Scholastic and genuine Aristotelians 280
The former class little remembered 280
The others not much better known 280
Schools of Pisa and Padua 280
Cesalpini 280
Sketch of his System 280
Cremonini 281
Opponents of Aristotle 281
Patrizzi 281
System of Telesio 281
Jordano Bruno 282
His Italian Works—Cena de li Ceneri 282
Della Causa, Principio ed Uno 282
Pantheism of Bruno 283
Bruno’s other Writings 284
General Character of his Philosophy 285
Sceptical Theory of Sanchez 286
Logic of Aconcio 286
Nizolius on the Principles of Philosophy 286
Margarita Antoniana of Pereira 287
Logic of Ramus—its Success 288
CHAPTER XIII.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Soto, De Justitia 289
Hooker 290
His Theory of Natural Law 290
Doubts felt by others 290
Essays of Montaigne 290
Their Characteristics 290
Writers on Morals in Italy 293
In England 293
Bacon’s Essays 293
Number of Political Writers 294
Oppression of Governments 294
And Spirit generated by it 294
Derived from Classic History 294
From their own and the Jewish 294
Franco Gallia of Hossoman 295
Vindiciæ of Languet 295
Contr’Un of Boetie 295
Buchanan, De Jure Regni 296
Poynet, on Politique Power 296
Its liberal Theory 296
Argues for Tyrannicide 297
The Tenets of Parties swayed by Circumstances 297
Similar Tenets among the Leaguers 298
Rose on the Authority of Christian States over Kings 298
Treatise of Boucher in the same Spirit 299
Answered by Barclay 299
The Jesuits adopt these Tenets 299
Mariana, De Rege 299
Popular Theories in England 300
Hooker 300
Political Memoirs 301
La Noue 301
Lipsius 301
Botero 301
His Remarks on Population 301
Paruta 302
Bodin 302
Analysis of his Treatise called the Republic 302
Authority of Heads of Families 302
Domestic Servitude 303
Origin of Commonwealths 303
Privileges of Citizens 303
Nature of Sovereign Power 304
Forms of Government 304
Despotism and Monarchy 304
Aristocracy 305
Senates and Councils of State 305
Duties of Magistrates 305
Corporations 305
Slaves, part of the State 305
Rise and Fall of States 306
Causes of Revolution 306
Astrological Fancies of Bodin 306
Danger of sudden Changes 307
Judicial Power of the Sovereign 307
Toleration of Religions 307
Influence of Climate on Government 307
Means of obviating Inequality 308
Confiscations—Rewards 308
Fortresses 308
Necessity of Good Faith 309
Census of Property 309
Public Revenues 309
Taxation 309
Adulteration of Coin 310
Superiority of Monarchy 310
Conclusion of the Work 310
Bodin compared with Aristotle and Machiavel 310
And with Montesquieu 310
Golden Age of Jurisprudence 311
Cujacius 311
Eulogies bestowed upon him 311
Cujacius, an Interpreter of Law rather than a Lawyer 312
French Lawyers below Cujacius—Govca and others 312
Opponents of the Roman Law 313
Faber of Savoy 313
Anti-Tribonianus of Hottoman 313
Civil Law not countenanced in France 314
Turamini 314
Cau Law 314
Law of Nations; its early State 314
Francis a Victoria 314
His Opinions on Public Law 315
Ayala, on the Rights of War 315
Albericus Gentilis on Embassies 316
His Treatise on the Rights of War 317
CHAPTER XIV.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
General Character of Italian Poets in this Age 318
Their usual Faults 318
Their Beauties 318
Character given by Muratori 318
Poetry of Casa 318
Of Costanzo 319
Baldi 319
Caro 319
Odes of Celio Magus 319
Coldness of the Amatory Sonnets 320
Studied Imitation of Petrarch 320
Their Fondness for Description 320
Judgment of Italian Critics 320
Bernardino Rota 320
Gaspara Stampa; her Love for Collalto 321
Is ill-requited 322
Her Second Love 322
Style of Gaspara Stampa 322
La Nautica of Baldi 322
Amadigi of Bernardo Tasso 323
Satirical and burlesque Poetry; Aretin 323
Other burlesque Writers 324
Attempts at Latin Metres 324
Poetical Translations 324
Torquato Tasso 324
The Jerusalem excellent in Choice of Subject 324
Superior to Homer and Virgil in some Points 324
Its Characters 325
Excellence of its Style 325
Some Faults in it 325
Defects of the Poem 326
It indicates the peculiar Genius of Tasso 326
Tasso compared to Virgil 326
To Ariosto 326
To the Bolognese Painters 327
Poetry Cultivated under Charles and Philip 327
Luis de Leon 328
Herrera 328
General Tone of Castilian Poetry 329
Castillejo 329
Araucana of Ercilla 329
Many epic Poems in Spain 329
Camœns 330
Defects of the Lusiad 330
Its Excellencies 330
Mickle’s Translation 330
Celebrated Passage in the Lusiad 331
Minor Poems of Camœns 331
Ferreira 331
Spanish Ballads 331
French Poets numerous 332
Change in the Tone of French Poetry 333
Ronsard 333
Other French Poets 334
Du Bartas 334
Pibrac; Desportes 335
French Metre and Versification 335
General character of French Poetry 335
German Poetry 336
Paradise of Dainty Devices 336
Character of this Collection 336
Sackville’s Induction 336
Inferiority of Poets in early years of Elizabeth 337
Gascoyne 337
Spenser’s Shepherd’s Kalendar 337
Sydney’s Character of Contemporary Poets 338
Improvement soon after this Time 338
Relaxation of Moral Austerity 339
Serious Poetry 339
Poetry of Sydney 339
Epithalanium of Spenser 340
Poems of Shakspeare 340
Daniel and Drayton 340
Nosce Teipsum of Davies 340
Satires of Hall, Marston, and Donne 341
Modulation of English Verse 341
Translations of Homer by Chapman 341
Of Tasso by Fairfax 342
Employment of Ancient Measures 342
Number of Poets in this Age 342
Scots and English Ballads 343
The Faery Queen 343
Superiority of the First Book 343
The succeeding Books 344
Spenser’s Sense of Beauty 344
Compared to Ariosto 344
Style of Spenser 345
Inferiority of the latter Books 345
Allegories of the Faery Queen 346
Blemishes in the Diction 346
Admiration of the Faery Queen 346
General Parallel of Italian and English Poetry 347
Decline of Latin Poetry in Italy 347
Compensated in other Countries 347
Lotichius 347
Collections of Latin Poetry by Gruter 348
Characters of some Gallo-Latin Poets 348
Sammarthanus 349
Belgic Poets 349
Scots Poets—Buchanan 349
CHAPTER XV.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Tragedy 350
Pastoral Drama 351
Aminta of Tasso 351
Pastor Fido of Guarini 352
Italian Opera 352
The National Taste revives in the Spanish Drama 353
Lope de Vega 353
His Extraordinary Fertility 353
His Versification 354
His Popularity 354
Character of his Comedies 354
Tragedy of Don Sancho Ortiz 355
His Spiritual Plays 356
Numancia of Cervantes 356
French Theatre—Jodelle 357
Garnier 357
Comedies of Larivey 358
Theatres in Paris 358
English Stage 359
Gammar Gurton’s Needle 359
Gorboduc of Sackville 359
Preference given to the Irregular Form 359
First Theatres 360
Plays of Whetstone and Others 360
Marlowe and his Contemporaries 360
Tamburlaine 361
Blank Verse of Marlowe 361
Marlowe’s Jew of Malta 361
And Faustus 361
His Edward II. 361
Plays whence Henry VI. was taken 361
Peele 362
Greene 362
Other Writers of this Age 363
Heywood’s Woman Killed with Kindness 363
William Shakspeare 364
His First Writings for the Stage 364
Comedy of Errors 365
Love’s Labour Lost 365
Taming of the Shrew 365
Midsummer Night’s Dream 365
Its Machinery 366
Its Language 366
Romeo and Juliet 366
Its Plot 367
Its Beauties and Blemishes 367
The Characters 367
The Language 367
Second Period of Shakspeare 368
The Historical Plays 368
Merchant of Venice 368
As You Like It 369
Jonson’s Every Man in his Humour 369
CHAPTER XVI.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Writers 369
Casa 369
Tasso 370
Firenzuola 370
Character of Italian Prose 370
Italian Letter Writers 370
Davanzati’s Tacitus 371
Jordano Bruno 371
French Writers—Amyot 371
Montaigne; Du Vair 371
Satire Menippée 372
English Writers 372
Ascham 372
Euphues of Lilly 373
Its Popularity 373
Sydney’s Arcadia 374
His Defence of Poesie 374
Hooker 374
Character of Elizabethan Writers 374
State of Criticism 375
Scaliger’s Poetics 375
His Preference of Virgil to Homer 375
His Critique on Modern Latin Poets 376
Critical Influence of the Academics 376
Dispute of Caro and Castelvetro 377
Castelvetro on Aristotle’s Poetics 377
Severity of Castelvetro’s Criticism 377
Ercolano of Varchi 378
Controversy about Dante 378
Academy of Florence 378
Salviati’s Attack on Tasso 379
Pinciano’s Art of Poetry 379
French Treatises of Criticism 379
Wilson’s Art of Rhetorique 379
Gascoyne; Webbe 380
Puttenham’s Art of Poesie 380
Sydney’s Defence of Poesy 380
Novels of Bandello 380
Of Cinthio 381
Of the Queen of Navarre 381
Spanish Romances of Chivalry 381
Diana of Monte-Mayor 382
Novels in the Picaresque Style 382
Guzman d’Alfarache 382
Las Guerras de Granada 383
Sydney’s Arcadia 383
Its Character 383
Inferiority of other English Fictions 384
CHAPTER XVII.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE FROM 1500 TO 1600.
Tartaglia and Cardan 385
Algebra of Pelletier 385
Record’s Whetstone of Wit 385
Vieta 385
His Discoveries 386
Geometers of this Period 388
Joachim Rhœticus 388
Copernican Theory 388
Tycho Brahe 389
His System 389
Gregorian Calendar 390
Optics 390
Mechanics 390
Statics of Stevinus 391
Hydrostatics 392
Gilbert on the Magnet 392
Gesner’s Zoology 392
Its Character by Cuvier 392
Gesner’s Arrangement 393
His Additions to known Quadrupeds 393
Belon 394
Salviani and Rondelet’s Ichthyology 394
Aldrovandus 394
Botany—Turner 395
Maranta—Botanical Gardens 395
Gesner 396
Dodœns 396
Lobel 396
Clusius 396
Cæsalpin 396
Dalechamps—Bauhin 397
Gerard’s Herbal 397
Anatomy—Fallopius 397
Eustachius 397
Coiter 398
Columbus 398
Circulation of the Blood 398
Medicinal Science 398
Syriac Version of New Testament 399
Hebrew Critics 399
Its Study in England 399
Arabic begins to be Studied 399
Collection of Voyages by Ramusio 400
Curiosity they awakened 400
Other Voyages 401
Accounts of China 401
India and Russia 401
English Discoveries in the Northern Seas 401
Geographical Books—Ortelius 401
Guicciardini 402
French Memoirs 403
Universities in Italy 403
In other Countries 403
Libraries 403
Collections of Antiquities in Italy 404
Pinelli 404
Italian Academies 405
Society of Antiquaries in England 405
New Books and Catalogues of them 406
Literary Correspondence 406
Bibliographical Works 406
Restraints on the Press 407
Index Expurgatorius 407
Its Effects 407
Restrictions in England 407
Latin more employed on this account 408
Influence of Literature 408
CHAPTER XVIII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Learning of 17th Century less Philological [409]
Popularity of Comenius [409]
Decline of Greek Learning [410]
Casaubon [410]
Viger de Idiotismis [411]
Weller’s Greek Grammar [411]
Labbe and Others [411]
Salmasius de Lingua Hellenistica [412]
Greek Editions—Savile’s Chrysostom [412]
Greek Learning in England [413]
Latin Editions—Torrentius [413]
Gruter [413]
Heinsius [413]
Grotius [414]
Rutgersius—Reinesius—Barthius [414]
Other Critics—English [414]
Salmasius [415]
Good Writers of Latin [415]
Scioppius [416]
His Philosophical Grammar [416]
His Infamia Famiani [416]
Judicium de Stylo Historico [416]
Gerard Vossius, de Vitiis Sermonis [417]
His Aristarchus [417]
Progress of Latin Style [418]
Gruter’s Collection of Inscriptions [418]
Assisted by Scaliger [419]
Works on Roman Antiquity [419]
Geography of Cluversius [420]
Meursius [420]
Ubbo Emmius [420]
Chronology of Lydiat—Calvisius [420]
Petavius [421]
Character of this Work [421]
CHAPTER XIX.
HISTORY Of THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Temporal Supremacy of Rome [422]
Contest with Venice [423]
Father Paul Sarpi [423]
History of Council of Trent [424]
Gallican Liberties—Richter [424]
Perron [425]
Decline of Papal Power [425]
Unpopularity of the Jesuits [426]
Richelieu’s Care of Gallican Liberties [426]
Controversy of Catholics and Protestants [426]
Increased respect for the Fathers [426]
Especially in England—Laud [427]
Defections to the Catholic Church [427]
Wavering of Casaubon [428]
And of Grotius [429]
Calixtus [434]
His Attempts at Concord [434]
High Church Party in England [435]
Daillé on the Right Use of the Fathers [435]
Chillingworth’s Religion of Protestants [436]
Character of this Work [436]
Hales on Schism [438]
Controversies on Grace and Free will—Augustinian Scheme [438]
Semi-pelagian Hypothesis [439]
Tenets of the Reformers [439]
Rise of Arminianism [440]
Episcopius [440]
His Writings [440]
Their Spirit and Tendency [440]
Great Latitude allowed by them [441]
Progress of Arminianism [441]
Cameron [441]
Rise of Jansenism [441]
Socinus—Volkelius [442]
Crellius—Ruarus [442]
Erastianism maintained by Hooker [443]
And Grotius [444]
His Treatise on Ecclesiastical Power of the State [444]
Remark upon this Theory [446]
Toleration of Religious Tenets [446]
Claimed by the Arminians [446]
By the Independents [447]
And by Jeremy Taylor [447]
His Liberty of Prophesying [447]
Boldness of his Doctrines [447]
His Notions of Uncertainty in Theological Tenets [448]
His low Opinion of the Fathers [448]
Difficulty of Finding out Truth [449]
Grounds of Toleration [449]
Inconsistency of One Chapter [450]
His General Defence of Toleration [450]
Effect of this Treatise [451]
Its Defects [451]
Great Erudition of this Period [452]
Usher—Petavius [452]
Sacred Criticism [452]
Grotius—Coccejus [452]
English Commentators [453]
Style of Preaching [453]
English Sermons [453]
Of Donne [454]
Of Jeremy Taylor [454]
Devotional Writings of Taylor and Hall [454]
In the Roman [455]
And Lutheran Church [455]
Infidelity of some Writers—Charron—Vanini [455]
Lord Herbert of Cherbury [456]
Grotius de Veritate [457]
English Translation of the Bible [457]
Its Style [457]
CHAPTER XX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Subjects of this Chapter [458]
Aristotelians and Ramists [458]
No improvement till near the End of the Century [459]
Methods of the Universities [459]
Scholastic Writers [459]
Treatises on Logic [460]
Campanella [460]
His Theory taken from Telesio [460]
Notion of Universal Sensibility [461]
His Imagination and Eloquence [461]
His Works Published by Admai [462]
Basson [463]
Berigard [463]
Magnen [463]
Paracelsists [463]
And Theosophists [463]
Fludd [464]
Jacob Behmen [464]
Lord Herbert de Veritate [464]
His Axioms [465]
Conditions of Truth [465]
Instinctive Truths [466]
Internal Perceptions [466]
Five Notions of Natural Religion [466]
Remarks of Gassendi on Herbert [467]
Gassendi’s Defence of Epicurus [468]
His chief Works after 1650 [468]
Preparation for the Philosophy of Lord Bacon [468]
His Plan of Philosophy [468]
Time of its Conception [469]
Instauratio Magna [470]
First Part—Partitiones Scientiarum [470]
Second Part—Novum Organum [470]
Third Part—Natural History [470]
Fourth Part—Scala Intellectûs [471]
Fifth Part—Anticipationes Philosophiæ [471]
Sixth Part—Philosophia Secunda [471]
Course of studying Lord Bacon [472]
Nature of the Baconian Induction [472]
His Dislike of Aristotle [474]
His Method much required [474]
Its Objects [474]
Sketch of the Treatise De Augmentis [474]
History [474]
Poetry [475]
Fine Passage on Poetry [475]
Natural Theology and Metaphysics [475]
Form of Bodies might sometimes be inquired into [475]
Final Causes too much slighted [476]
Man not included by him in Physics [476]
Man—in Body and Mind [476]
Logic [476]
Extent given it by Bacon [476]
Grammar and Rhetoric [477]
Ethics [477]
Politics [477]
Theology [478]
Desiderata enumerated by him [478]
Novum Organum—First Book [478]
Fallacies—Idola [478]
Confounded with Idols [478]
Second Book of Novum Organum [479]
Confidence of Bacon [479]
Almost justified of late [480]
But should be kept within Bounds [481]
Limits to our Knowledge by Sense [481]
Inductive Logic—whether confined to Physics [481]
Baconian Philosophy built on Observation and Experiment [482]
Advantages of the latter [482]
Sometimes applicable to Philosophy of Human Mind [483]
Less so to Politics and Morals [483]
Induction less conclusive on these Subjects [483]
Reasons for this Difference [484]
Considerations on the other Side [484]
Result of the whole [485]
Bacon’s Aptitude for Moral Subjects [486]
Comparison of Bacon and Galileo [487]
His Prejudice against Mathematics [488]
Bacon’s Excess of Wit [488]
Fame of Bacon on the Continent [489]
Early Life of Descartes [491]
His beginning to philosophise [491]
He retires to Holland [491]
His Publications [492]
He begins by doubting all [492]
His First Step in Knowledge [492]
His Mind not Sceptical [493]
He arrives at more Certainty [493]
His Proof of a Deity [493]
Another Proof of it [494]
His Deductions from this [494]
Primary and Secondary Qualities [495]
Objections made to his Meditations [495]
Theory of Memory and Imagination [496]
Seat of Soul in Pineal Gland [497]
Gassendi’s Attacks on the Meditations [497]
Superiority of Descartes [497]
Stewart’s Remarks on Descartes [498]
Paradoxes of Descartes [499]
His Just Notions and Definitions [500]
His Notion of Substances [501]
Not Quite Correct [501]
His Notions of Intuitive Truth [501]
Treatise on Art of Logic [502]
Merits of his Writings [502]
His Notions of Free will [502]
Fame of his System, and Attacks upon it [503]
Controversy with Voet [503]
Charges of Plagiarism [504]
Recent Increase of his Fame [505]
Metaphysical Treatises of Hobbes [505]
His Theory of Sensation [506]
Coincident with Descartes [506]
Imagination and Memory [506]
Discourse or Train of Imagination [507]
Experience [507]
Unconceivableness of Infinity [507]
Origin of Language [508]
His Political Theory interferes [508]
Necessity of Speech exaggerated [509]
Use of Names [509]
Names Universal not Realities [509]
How imposed [510]
The Subject continued [510]
Names differently imposed [511]
Knowledge [511]
Reasoning [512]
False Reasoning [512]
Its frequency [513]
Knowledge of Fact not derived from Reasoning [514]
Belief [514]
Chart of Science [515]
Analysis of Passions [515]
Good and Evil relative Terms [515]
His Paradoxes [515]
His Notion of Love [516]
Curiosity [516]
Difference of Intellectual Capacities [516]
Wit and Fancy [517]
Differences in the Passions [517]
Madness [517]
Unmeaning Language [517]
Manners [517]
Ignorances and Prejudice [518]
His Theory of Religion [518]
Its supposed Sources [518]
CHAPTER XXI.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Casuistical Writers [521]
Importance of Confession [521]
Necessity of Rules for the Confessor [521]
Increase of Casuistical Literature [521]
Distinction of subjective and objective Morality [522]
Directory Office of the Confessor [522]
Difficulties of Casuistry [522]
Strict and Lax Schemes of it [523]
Convenience of the latter [523]
Favoured by the Jesuits [523]
The Causes of this [523]
Extravagance of the strict Casuists [524]
Opposite Faults of Jesuits [524]
Suarez, De Legibus [524]
Titles of his Ten Books [524]
Heads of the Second Book [525]
Character of such Scholastic Treatises [525]
Quotations of Suarez [525]
His Definition of Eternal Law [526]
Whether God is a Legislator [526]
Whether God could permit or commend wrong Actions [527]
English Casuists—Perkins—Hall [527]
Selden, De Jure Naturali Juxta Hebræos [528]
Jewish Theory of Natural Law [528]
Seven Precepts of the Sons of Noah [528]
Character of Selden’s Work [528]
Grotius and Hobbes [528]
Charron on Wisdom [529]
La Mothe le Vayer—his Dialogues [529]
Bacon’s Essays [529]
Their Excellence [530]
Feltham’s Resolves [530]
Browne’s Regligio Medici [531]
Selden’s Table Talk [532]
Osborn’s Advice to his Son [532]
John Valentine Andrax [532]
Abandonment of Anti-Monarchical Theories [533]
Political Literature becomes historical [533]
Bellenden De Statu [534]
Campanella’s Politics [534]
La Mothe le Vayer [534]
Naude’s Coups d’Etat [534]
Patriarchal Theory of Government [534]
Refuted by Suarez [535]
His Opinion of Law [535]
Bacon [536]
Political Economy [536]
Serra on the Means of obtaining Money without Mines [537]
His Causes of Wealth [537]
His Praise of Venice [537]
Low Rate of Exchange not essential to wealth [587]
Hobbes.—His Political Works [538]
Analysis of his Three Treatises [538]
Civil Jurists of this period [543]
Suarez on Laws [544]
Grotius—De Jure Belli et Pacis [544]
Success of this Work [544]
Its Originality [545]
Its Motive and Object [545]
His Authorities [545]
Foundation of Natural Law [546]
Positive Law [546]
Perfect and Imperfect Rights [546]
Lawful Cases of War [546]
Resistance by Subjects unlawful [547]
All Men naturally have Right of War [547]
Right of Self-Defence [548]
Its Origin and Limitations [548]
Right of Occupancy [549]
Relinquishment of it [549]
Right over Persons—By Generation [549]
By Consent [549]
In Marriage [549]
In Commonwealths [549]
Right of Alienating Subjects [549]
Alienation by Testament [550]
Rights of Property by Positive Law [550]
Extinction of Rights [550]
Some Casuistical Questions [550]
Promises [550]
Contracts [551]
Considered ethically [551]
Promissory Oaths [552]
Engagements of Kings towards Subjects [552]
Public Treaties [552]
Their Interpretation [553]
Obligation to repair Injury [553]
Rights by Law of Nations [554]
Those of Ambassadors [554]
Right of Sepulture [554]
Punishments [554]
Their Responsibility [555]
Insufficient Causes of War [556]
Duty of avoiding it [556]
And Expediency [556]
War for the sake of other Subjects [556]
Allies [556]
Strangers [556]
None to Serve in an Unjust War [556]
Rights in War [557]
Use of Deceit [557]
Rules and Customs of Nations [557]
Reprisals [557]
Declarations of War [557]
Rights by law of nations over Enemies [558]
Prisoners become Slaves [558]
Rights of Postliminium [558]
Moral Limitation of Rights in War [558]
Moderation required as to spoil [559]
And as to Prisoners [559]
Also in Conquest [559]
And in Restitution to right Owners [559]
Promises to Enemies and Pirates [559]
Treaties concluded by competent Authority [560]
Matters relating to them [561]
Truces and Conventions [561]
Those of Private persons [561]
Objections to Grotius made by Paley unreasonable [561]
Reply of Mackintosh [561]
Censures of Stewart [562]
Answer to them [562]
Grotius vindicated against Rousseau [565]
His Arrangement [565]
His Defects [565]
CHAPTER XXII.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Low Estimation of the Seicentisti [566]
Not quite so great as formerly [566]
Praise of them by Rubbi [566]
Also by Salfi [566]
Adone of Marini [567]
Its Character [567]
And Popularity [567]
Secchia Rapita of Tassoni [568]
Chiabrera [569]
His Followers [569]
The Styles of Spanish Poetry [570]
The Romances [570]
The Brothers Argensola [570]
Villegas [571]
Quevedo [571]
Defects of Taste in Spanish Verse [571]
Pedantry and far-fetched Allusions [572]
Gongora [572]
The Schools formed by him [573]
Malherbe [573]
Criticisms upon his Poetry [574]
Satires of Regnier [574]
Racan—Maynard [574]
Voiture [574]
Sarrasin [575]
Low state of German Literature [575]
Literary Societies [575]
Opitz [575]
His Followers [576]
Dutch Poetry [576]
Spiegel [576]
Hooft-Cats-Vondel [577]
Danish Poetry [577]
English Poets numerous in this age [577]
Phineas Fletcher [577]
Giles Fletcher [578]
Philosophical Poetry [578]
Lord Brooke [578]
Denham’s Cooper’s Hill [579]
Poets called Metaphysical [579]
Donne [580]
Crashaw [580]
Cowley [580]
Johnson’s Character of him [580]
Narrative Poets—Daniel [580]
Drayton’s Polyolbion [581]
Browne’s Britannia’s Pastorals [581]
Sir John Beaumont [582]
Davenant’s Gondibert [582]
Sonnets of Shakspeare [582]
The person whom they address [583]
Sonnets of Drummond and others [584]
Carew [584]
Ben Jonson [585]
Wither [585]
Habington [585]
Earl of Pembroke [585]
Suckling [586]
Lovelace [586]
Herrick [586]
Milton [586]
His Comus [586]
Lycidas [587]
Allegro and Penseroso [587]
Ode on the Nativity [588]
His Sonnets [588]
Anonymous Poetry [588]
Latin Poets of France [588]
In Germany and Italy [588]
In Holland—Heinsius [589]
Casimir Sarbievius [589]
Barlæus [589]
Balde—Greek Poems of Heinsius [590]
Latin Poets of Scotland—Jonston’s Psalms [590]
Owen’s Epigrams [590]
Alabaster’s Roxana [590]
May’s Supplement to Lucan [590]
Milton’s Latin Poems [591]
CHAPTER XXIII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of the Italian Theatre [591]
Filli de Sciro [592]
Translations of Spanish Dramas [592]
Extemporaneous Comedy [593]
Spanish Stage [593]
Calderon—Number of his Pieces [593]
His Comedies [593]
La Vida es Sueno [594]
A Secreto agravio secreta vengança [595]
Style of Calderon [595]
His Merits sometimes overrated [596]
Plays of Hardy [596]
The Cid [597]
Style of Corneille [598]
Les Horaces [598]
Cimia [598]
Polyeucte [599]
Rodogune [599]
Pompey [599]
Heraclius [599]
Nicomède [600]
Faults and Beauties of Corneille [600]
Le Menteur [600]
Other French Tragedies [600]
Wenceslas of Rotron [600]
Popularity of the Stage under Elizabeth [601]
Number of Theatres [601]
Encouraged by James [601]
General Taste for the Stage [601]
Theatres closed by the Parliament [602]
Shakspeare’s Twelfth Night [602]
Merry Wives of Windsor [603]
Measure for Measure [604]
Lear [604]
Timon of Athens [604]
Pericles [605]
His Roman Tragedies—Julius Cæsar [606]
Antony and Cleopatra [606]
Coriolanus [606]
His Retirement and Death [607]
Greatness of his Genius [607]
His Judgment [607]
His Obscurity [608]
His Popularity [608]
Critics on Shakspeare [609]
Ben Jonson [609]
The Alchemist [609]
Volpone, or The Fox [610]
The Silent Woman [610]
Sad Shepherd [611]
Beaumont and Fletcher [611]
Corrupt State of their Text [611]
The Maid’s Tragedy [611]
Philaster [612]
King and no King [613]
The Elder Brother [613]
The Spanish Curate [613]
The Custom of the Country [613]
The Loyal Subject [613]
Beggar’s Bush [613]
The Scornful Lady [614]
Valentinian [614]
The Two Noble Kinsmen [615]
The Faithful Shepherdess [615]
Rule a Wife, and have a Wife [616]
Some other Plays [616]
Origin of Fletcher’s Plays [616]
Defects of their plots [616]
Their Sentiments and Style Dramatic [617]
Their Characters [617]
Their Tragedies [617]
Inferior to their Comedies [618]
Their Female Characters [618]
Massinger—Nature of his Dramas [619]
His Delineations of Character [619]
His Subjects [619]
Beauty of His Style [620]
Inferiority of his Comic Powers [620]
Some of his Tragedies particularized [620]
And of his other Plays [620]
Ford [621]
Shirley [621]
Heywood [622]
Webster [622]
His Duchess of Malfy [622]
Vittoria Corombona [622]
CHAPTER XXIV.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of Taste in Italy [623]
Style of Galileo [624]
Bentivoglio [624]
Boccalini’s News from Parnassus [624]
His Pietra del Paragone [625]
Terrante Pallavicino [625]
Dictionary Delia Crusca [625]
Grammatical Works—Buonmattei—Bartoli [626]
Tassoni’s Remarks on Petrarch [626]
Galileo’s Remarks on Tasso [626]
Sforza Pallavicino [626]
And other Critical Writers [626]
Prolusiones of Strada [627]
Spanish Prose—Gracian [627]
French Prose—Du Vair [627]
Balzac [628]
Character of his Writings [628]
His Letters [628]
Voiture—Hotel Rambouillet [629]
Establishment of French Academy [630]
Its objects and Constitution [630]
It publishes a Critique on the Cid [631]
Vaugelas’s Remarks on the French Language [631]
La Mothe le Vayer [632]
Legal Speeches of Patru [632]
And of Le Maistre [632]
Improvement in English Style [633]
Earl of Essex [633]
Knolles’s History of the Turks [634]
Raleigh’s History of the World [635]
Daniel’s History of England [635]
Bacon [635]
Milton [636]
Clarendon [636]
The Icon Basilice [636]
Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy [637]
Earle’s Characters [637]
Overbury’s Characters [637]
Jonson’s Discoveries [637]
Publication of Don Quixote [638]
Its Reputation [638]
New Views of its Design [638]
Probably erroneous [638]
Difference between the two Parts [639]
Excellence of this Romance [639]
Minor Novels of Cervantes [639]
Other Novels—Spanish [639]
And Italian [639]
French Romances—Astrée [639]
Heroic Romances—Gomberville [640]
Calprenède [640]
Scuderi [641]
Argenis of Barclay [641]
His Euphormis [643]
Campanella’s City of the Sun [643]
Few Books of Fiction in England [643]
Mundus Alter et Idem of Hall [644]
Godwin’s Journey to the Moon [644]
Howell’s Dodona’s Grove [644]
Adventures of Baron de Fænesle [644]
CHAPTER XXV.
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
State of Science in 16th Century [645]
Tediousness of Calculations [645]
Napier’s Invention of Logarithms [645]
Their Nature [645]
Property of Numbers discovered by Stifelius [645]
Extended to Magnitudes [646]
By Napier [646]
Tables of Napier and Briggs [646]
Kepler’s New Geometry [647]
Its Difference from the Ancient [647]
Adopted by Galileo [648]
Extended by Cavalieri [648]
Applied to the Ratios of Solids [648]
Problem of the Cycloid [648]
Progress of Algebra [649]
Briggs—Girard [649]
Harriott [649]
Descartes [650]
His Application of Algebra to Curves [650]
Suspected Plagiarism from Harriot [650]
Fermat [651]
Algebraic Geometry not successful at first [652]
Astronomy—Kepler [652]
Conjectures as to Comets [652]
Galileo’s Discovery of Jupiter’s Satellites [653]
Other Discoveries by him [653]
Spots of the Sun discovered [653]
Copernican System held by Galileo [654]
His Dialogues, and Persecution [654]
Descartes alarmed by this [655]
Progress of Copernican System [655]
Descartes denies General Gravitation [655]
Cartesian Theory of the World [655]
Transits of Mercury and Venus [656]
Laws of Mechanics [656]
Statics of Galileo [657]
His Dynamics [657]
Mechanics of Descartes [658]
Law of Motion laid down by Descartes [658]
Also those of Compound Forces [659]
Other Discoveries in Mechanics [659]
In Hydrostatics and Pneumatics [659]
Optics—Discoveries of Kepler [660]
Invention of the Telescope [660]
Of the Microscope [660]
Antonio de Dominis [660]
Dioptrics of Descartes—Law of Refraction [661]
Disputed by Fermat [661]
Curves of Descartes [661]
Theory of the Rainbow [661]
CHAPTER XXVI.
HISTORY OF SOME OTHER PROVINCES OF LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Aldrovandus [662]
Clusius [662]
Rio and Marcgraf [662]
Jonston [662]
Fabricius on the Language of Brutes [663]
Botany—Columna [664]
John and Gaspar Bauhin [664]
Parkinson [664]
Valves of the Veins discovered [665]
Theory of the Blood’s Circulation [665]
Sometimes ascribed to Servetus [665]
To Columbus [666]
And to Cæsalpin [666]
Generally unknown before Harvey [667]
His Discovery [667]
Unjustly doubted to be Original [667]
Harvey’s Treatise on Generation [668]
Lacteals discovered by Asellius [668]
Optical Discoveries of Scheiner [669]
Medicine—Van Helmont [669]
Diffusion of Hebrew [669]
Language not studied in the best method [669]
The Buxtorfs [670]
Vowel Points rejected by Cappel [670]
Hebrew Scholars [671]
Chaldee and Syriac [671]
Arabic [671]
Erpenius [671]
Golius [671]
Other Eastern Languages [672]
Purchas’s Pilgrim [672]
Olearius and Pietro della Valle [672]
Lexicon of Ferrari [672]
Maps of Blaew [672]
Davila and Bentivoglio [673]
Mendoza’s Wars of Granada [673]
Mezeray [673]
English Historians [673]
English Histories [673]
Universities [673]
Bodleian Library founded [674]
Casaubon’s Account of Oxford [674]
Catalogue of Bodleian Library [674]
Continental Libraries [675]
Italian Academies [675]
The Lincei [675]
Prejudice for Antiquity diminished [676]
Browne’s Vulgar Errors [677]
Life and Character of Peiresc [677]
CHAPTER XXVII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
James Frederic Gronovius [678]
James Gronovius [679]
Grævius [679]
Isaac Vossius [679]
Decline of German Learning [679]
Spanheim [679]
Jesuit Colleges in France [679]
Port-Royal Writers—Lancelot [679]
Latin Writers—Perizonius [680]
Delphin Editions [680]
Le Fevre and the Daciers [680]
Henry Valois—Complaints of Decay of Learning [680]
English Learning—Duport [681]
Greek not much studied [681]
Gataker’s Cinnus and Antoninus [681]
Stanley’s Æschylus [682]
Other English Philologers [682]
Bentley [682]
His Epistle to Mill [682]
Dissertation on Phalaris [682]
Disadvantages of Scholars in that Age [683]
Thesauri of Grævius and of Gronovius [683]
Fabretti [684]
Numismatics, Spanheim—Vaillant [684]
Chronology—Usher [684]
Pezron [685]
Marsham [685]
CHAPTER XXVIII.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Decline of Papal Influence [685]
Dispute of Louis XIV. with Innocent XI. [686]
Four Articles of 1682 [686]
Dupin on the ancient Discipline [686]
Dupin’s Ecclesiastical Library [687]
Fleury’s Ecclesiastical History [687]
His Dissertations [687]
Protestant Controversy in France [688]
Bossuet’s Exposition of Catholic Faith [688]
His Conference with Claude [688]
Correspondence with Molanus and Leibnitz [689]
His Variations of Protestant Churches [690]
Anglican Writings against Popery [690]
Taylor’s Dissuasive [690]
Barrow—Stillingfleet [690]
Jansenius [691]
Condemnation of his Augustinus in France [691]
And at Rome [691]
The Jansenists take a Distinction [692]
And are Persecuted [692]
Progress of Arminianism [692]
Courcelles [693]
Limborch [693]
Le Clerc [693]
Sancroft’s Fur Prædestinatus [693]
Arminianism in England [694]
Bull’s Harmonia Apostolica [694]
Hammond—Locke—Wilkins [694]
Socinians in England [695]
Bull’s Defensio Fidei Nicenæ [695]
Not Satisfactory to all [695]
Mystics [696]
Fenelon [696]
Change in the Character of Theological Literature [696]
Freedom of many Writings [696]
Thoughts of Pascal [697]
Vindications of Christianity [699]
Progress of Tolerant Principles [700]
Bayle’s Philosophical Commentary [700]
Locke’s Letter on Toleration [700]
French Sermons [701]
Bourdaloue [701]
Compared with Bossuet [702]
Funeral Discourses of Bossuet [702]
Fléchier [703]
English Sermons—Barrow [703]
South [704]
Tillotson [704]
Expository Theology [704]
Pearson on the Creed [704]
Simon’s Critical Histories [705]
CHAPTER XXIX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Aristotelian Metaphysics [705]
Their Decline. Thomas White [706]
Logic [706]
Stanley’s History of Philosophy [707]
Gale’s Court of Gentiles [707]
Cudworth’s Intellectual System [707]
Its object [708]
Sketch of it [708]
His plastic nature [708]
His account of old Philosophy [708]
His Arguments against Atheism [709]
More [709]
Gassendi [710]
His Logic [710]
His Theory of Ideas [710]
And of the Nature of the Soul [710]
Distinguishes Ideas of Reflection [711]
Also Intellect from Imagination [711]
His Philosophy misunderstood by Stewart [712]
Bernier’s Epitome of Gassendi [713]
Process of Cartesian Philosophy [713]
La Forge—Regis [714]
Huet’s Censure of Cartesianism [715]
Port-Royal Logic [716]
Malebranche [717]
His Style [717]
Sketch of his Theory [717]
Character of Malebranche [724]
Compared with Pascal [724]
Arnauld on True and False ideas [725]
Norris [725]
Pascal [725]
Spinosa’s Ethics [726]
Its general Originality [726]
View of his Metaphysical Theory [727]
Spinosa’s Theory of action and Passion [731]
Character of Spinosism [732]
Glanvil’s Scepsis Scientifica [733]
His Plus Ultra [734]
Dalgarno [735]
Wilkins [736]
Locke on Human Understanding [736]
Its merits [736]
Its Defects [737]
Origin of Ideas according to Locke [737]
Vague Use of the Word Idea [738]
An Error as to Geometrical Figure [739]
His Notions as to the Soul [740]
And its Immateriality [740]
His Love of Truth and Originality [741]
Defended in two cases [742]
His View of Lunatic Ideas [742]
General Praise [743]
Locke’s Conduct of Understanding [743]
CHAPTER XXX.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Casuistry of the Jesuits [744]
Pascal’s Provincial Letters [744]
Their Truth questioned by some [744]
Taylor’s Ductor Dubitantium [745]
Its Character and Defects [745]
Cudworth’s immutable Morality [745]
Nicole—La Placette [746]
Other Writers [746]
Moral System of Spinosa [746]
Cumberland’s De Legibus Naturæ [747]
Analysis of Prolegomena [748]
His Theory expanded afterwards [749]
Remarks on Cumberland’s Theory [752]
Puffendorf’s Law of Nature and Nations [753]
Analysis of this Work [754]
Puffendorf and Paley compared [757]
Rochefoucault [757]
La Bruyère [758]
Education—Milton’s Tractrate [758]
Locke on Education—Its merits [759]
And Defects [759]
Fenelon on Female Education [761]
Puffendorf’s Theory of Politics [762]
Politics of Spinosa [764]
His Theory of a Monarchy [766]
Amelot de la Houssaye [766]
Harrington’s Oceana[766]
Patriarcha of Filmer[767]
Sydney’s Discourses on Government[767]
Locke on Government [768]
Observations on this Treatise[771]
Avis auz Refugiéz, perhaps by Bayle[772]
Political Economist’s [772]
Mun on Foreign Trade [773]
Child on Trade [773]
Locke on the Coin [773]
Statistical Tracts [774]
Works of Leibnitz on Roman Law [775]
Civil Jurists—Godefroy—Domat [775]
Noodt of Usury [776]
Law of Nations—Puffendorf [776]
CHAPTER XXXI.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Improved Tone of Italian Poetry [776]
Filicaja [777]
Guidi [777]
Menzini [778]
Salvator Rosa—Redi [778]
Other Poets[778]
Christina’s Patronage of Letters [778]
Society of Arcadians [778]
La Fontaine[779]
Character of his Fables [779]
Boileau: His Epistles [780]
His Art of Poetry [780]
Comparison with Horace [780]
The Lutrin[780]
General Character of his Poetry [780]
Lyric Poetry lighter than before [781]
Benserade [781]
Chaulieu [781]
Pastoral Poetry [781]
Segrais [781]
Deshouliéres [781]
Fontenelle [782]
Bad Epic Poems [782]
German Poetry [782]
Waller [782]
Butler’s Hudibras [783]
Paradise Lost—Choice of Subject [783]
Open to some Difficulties[783]
Its Arrangement [783]
Characters of Adam and Eve [784]
He owes less to Homer than the Tragedians [784]
Compared with Dante[784]
Elevation of his Style [785]
His Blindness [786]
His Passion for Music[786]
Faults in Paradise Lost[786]
Its Progress to Fame[786]
Paradise Regained[787]
Samson Agonistes[787]
Dryden—His earlier Poems [787]
Absalom and Achitophel [788]
Mac Flecknoe[788]
The Hind and Panther[789]
Its Singular Fable [789]
Its Reasoning [789]
The Fables [789]
His Odes—Alexander’s Feast [790]
His Translation of Virgil [790]
Decline of Poetry from the Restoration [790]
Some Minor Poets enumerated [790]
Latin Poets of Italy [791]
Ceva [791]
Sergardi [791]
Of France—Quillet[791]
Menage [792]
Rapin on Gardens [792]
Santeul[793]
Latin Poetry in England [793]
CHAPTER XXXII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Italian and Spanish Drama[793]
Racine’s first Tragedies [793]
Andromaque [794]
Britannicus [795]
Berenice [795]
Bajazet [795]
Mithridate [796]
Iphigénie [796]
Phèdre [797]
Esther[797]
Athalie[797]
Racine’s Female Characters[798]
Racine compared with Corneille[798]
Beauty of his Style [798]
Thomas Corneille—His Ariane[799]
Manlius of La Fosse [799]
Molière[799]
L’Avare [799]
L’Ecole des Femmes [800]
Le Misanthrope[800]
Les Femmes Savantes [801]
Tartuffe[801]
Bourgeois Gentilhomme—George Dandin[801]
Character of Molière [802]
Les Plaideurs of Racine [802]
Regnard—Le Joueur [802]
His Other Plays [803]
Quinault—Boursault [803]
Dancourt [803]
Brueys [804]
Operas of Quinault[804]
Revival of the English Theatre[804]
Change of Public Taste[804]
Its Causes [805]
Heroic Tragedies of Dryden[805]
His later Tragedies [805]
Don Sebastian [806]
Spanish Friar [806]
Otway [806]
Southern [807]
Lee [807]
Congreve [807]
Comedies of Charles II.’s Reign [807]
Wycherley [808]
Improvement after the Revolution [808]
Congreve [808]
Love for Love [808]
His other Comedies [808]
Farquhar—Vanbrugh [809]
CHAPTER XXXIII.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Low State of Literature in Italy [809]
Crescimbeni [810]
Age of Louis XIV. in France [810]
Fontenelle—his Character [810]
His Dialogues of the Dead [811]
Those of Fenelon [811]
Fontenelle’s Plurality of Worlds [811]
His History of Oracles [811]
St. Evremond [812]
Madame de Sevigné [812]
The French Academy [812]
French Grammars [813]
Bouhour’s Entretiens d’Ariste et d’Eugène [813]
Attacked by Barbier d’Ancour [814]
La Manière de Bien Penser [815]
Rapin’s Reflections on Eloquence and Poetry [815]
His Parallel’s of Great Men [815]
Bossu on Epic Poetry [816]
Fontenelle’s Critical Writings [816]
Preference of French Language to Latin [816]
General Superiority of Ancients disputed [816]
Charles Perrault [816]
Fontenelle [817]
Boileau’s Defence of Antiquity [817]
First Reviews—Journal des Sçavans [817]
Reviews Established by Bayle [818]
Reviews Established by Le Clerc [818]
Leipsic Acts [819]
Bayle’s Thoughts on the Comet [819]
His Dictionary [819]
Baillet—Morhof [820]
The Ana [820]
English Style in this Period [820]
Hobbes [821]
Cowley [821]
Evelyn [821]
Dryden [821]
His Essay on Dramatic Poesy [822]
Improvements in his Style [823]
His Critical Character [823]
Rymer on Tragedy [823]
Sir William Temple’s Essays [824]
Style of Locke [824]
Sir George Mackenzie’s Essays [824]
Andrew Fletcher [824]
Walton’s Complete Angler [824]
Wilkins’ New World [824]
Antiquity defended by Temple [825]
Wotton’s Reflection’s [825]
Quevedo’s Visions [825]
French Heroic Romances [826]
Novels of Madame La Fayette [826]
Scarron’s Roman Comique [826]
Cyrano de Bergerac [827]
Segrais [827]
Perrault [827]
Hamilton [827]
Télémaque of Fenelon [827]
Deficiency of English Romances [828]
Pilgrim’s Progress [828]
Turkish Spy [829]
Chiefly of English Origin [830]
Swift’s Tale of a Tub [831]
CHAPTER XXXIV.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND OTHER LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Reasons for omitting Mathematics [831]
Academy del Cimento [831]
Royal Society [832]
Academy of Sciences at Paris [832]
State of Chemistry [832]
Becker [833]
Boyle [833]
His Metaphysical Works [833]
Extract from one of them [833]
His Merits in Physics and Chemistry [834]
General Character of Boyle [834]
Of Hooke and Others [834]
Lemery [835]
Slow Progress of Zoology [835]
Before Ray [835]
His Synopsis of Quadrupeds [835]
Merits of this Work [835]
Redi [836]
Swammerdam [836]
Lister [836]
Comparative Anatomy [836]
Botany [837]
Jungius [837]
Morison [837]
Ray [837]
Rivinus [838]
Tournefort [838]
Vegetable Physiology [839]
Grew [839]
His Anatomy of Plants [840]
He discovers the Sexual System [840]
Camerarius confirms this [840]
Predecessors of Grew [840]
Malpighi [840]
Early Notions of Geology [840]
Burnet’s Theory of Earth [840]
Other Geologists [841]
Protogæa of Leibnitz [841]
Circulation of Blood Established [842]
Willis—Vieussens [842]
Malpighi [842]
Other Anatomists [842]
Medical Theories [843]
Polyglott of Walton [843]
Hottinger [844]
Spencer [844]
Bochart [844]
Pococke [844]
D’Herbelot [844]
Hyde [844]
Maps of the Sansons [844]
De Lisle’s Map of the World [845]
Voyages and Travels [845]
Historians [845]
De Solis [845]
Memoirs of De Retz [845]
Bossuet on Universal History [846]
English Historical Works [846]
Burnet [846]
General Character of 17th Century [846]
Conclusion [847]

INTRODUCTION
TO THE
LITERATURE OF EUROPE
IN THE FIFTEENTH, SIXTEENTH, AND
SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.

CHAPTER XVIII.

HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE, FROM 1600 TO 1650.

Sect. I.

Decline of merely philological, especially Greek, Learning—Casaubon—Viger—Editions of Greek and Latin Classics—Critical Writings—Latin Style—Scioppius—Vossius—Successive Periods of modern Latinists.

Learning of 17th century less philological. 1. In every period of literary history, if we should listen to the complaints of contemporary writers, all learning and science have been verging towards extinction. None remain of the mighty, the race of giants is no more; the lights that have been extinguished burn in no other hands; we have fallen on evil days, when letters are no longer in honour with the world, nor are they cultivated by those who deserve to be honoured. Such are the lamentations of many throughout the whole sixteenth century; and with such do Scaliger and Casaubon greet that which opened upon them. Yet the first part of the seventeenth century may be reckoned eminently the learned age; rather however in a more critical and exact erudition with respect to historical fact, than in what is strictly called philology, as to which we cannot, on the whole, rank this so high as the preceding period. Neither Italy nor Germany maintained its reputation, which, as it has been already mentioned, had begun to wane towards the close of the sixteenth century. The same causes were b work, the same preference of studies very foreign to polite letters, metaphysical philosophy, dogmatic theology, patristic or mediæval ecclesiastical history, or, in some countries, the physical sciences, which were rapidly gaining ground. And to these we must add a prevalence of bad taste, even among those who had some pretensions to be reckoned scholars. Lipsius had set an example of abandoning the purest models; and his followers had less sense and taste than himself. They sought obsolete terms from Pacuvius and Plautus, they affected pointed sentences, and a studied conciseness of period, which made their style altogether dry and jejune.[1] The universities, and even the gymnasia or schools of Germany, grew negligent of all the beauties of language. Latin itself was acquired in a slovenly manner, by help of modern books, which spared the pains of acquiring any subsidiary knowledge of antiquity. And this neglect of the ancient writers in education caused even eminent scholars to write ill, as we perceive in the supplements of Freinshemius to Curtius and Livy.[2]

[1] Biogr. Univ. art. Grævius. Eichhorn, iii. 1. 320.

[2] Eichhorn, 326.