At the opening of the seventies a terrific conflagration[[307]] all but wiped out Chicago. The need for rapid rebuilding drew thither ambitious architects and engineers from all over the East, but the immediate results of their activities were anything but edifying. Architectural leadership was still centred in Boston and New York; in any case, that leadership had rarely been more confused than in the early seventies when even Richardson was only just maturing his personal style. Richardson’s own Chicago building for the American Express Company was doubtless too indeterminate in character to attract a local following; nor did he build again in Chicago until the mid eighties, by which time various versions of the Richardsonian were already reaching Chicago at second or third hand.
If the Chicago architectural scene had any virtues around 1880 they were largely negative ones: no established traditions, no real professional leaders, and ignorance of all architectural styles past or present. Among the architects who had settled in Chicago in the seventies was a Dane, Dankmar Adler (1844-1900). Into his office in 1879, first as chief draughtsman but soon as partner, came the young Bostonian Louis Sullivan. As has been noted before, Sullivan had been trained first in Ware’s school at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and later, until he revolted against its rigid doctrines, at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Having worked for Frank Furness, wildest of American High Victorians, Sullivan picked Chicago not alone for its evident professional opportunities but also because he liked the idea of working where there were no hampering traditions. (Moreover, his parents had moved there from Boston.)
The earliest building of any real originality designed by Sullivan, the Rothschild Store in Chicago of 1880-1, seems at first a turgid compilation of barbarisms. Examined more closely, however, and compared with the Leiter Building on its right, which was built two years earlier by the engineer-architect William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907), the two sorts of innovation that Sullivan essayed here can be readily recognized. On the one hand there is the ornament,[[308]] undefinable in historic terms yet with a kind of similarity—almost certainly accidental—to the Anglo-Japanese detail of Nesfield and Godwin. At this stage in Sullivan’s career the originality of his ornament must be remarked but can hardly be admired. Below his elaborate ornamental cresting, on the other hand, Sullivan handled the main architectonic elements of his façade with considerable novelty and most admirable logic. Although the building is not tall—no skyscraper, that is, even by the modest standards of 1880—Sullivan did not hesitate to follow the lead of the Philadelphia commercial architects of the fifties in emphasizing the vertical. This he accomplished by continuing the mullions that subdivide his bays across the spandrels, somewhat as Ellis had done fifteen years before in his buildings in Liverpool, rather than by using a multiplicity of masonry piers.
Sullivan’s next Chicago building, the Revell Store erected for Martin Ryerson in 1881-3, continued the theme of the Rothschild Store, but extended it over a much larger corner block with considerable chastening of the ornamental treatment at the top. The Troescher Building of 1884, which came next in sequence, is very much finer. Widely-spaced piers of plain brickwork rise the full height of the façade above a slightly Richardsonian ground-storey arcade of rock-faced stone; between them there are no oriels, as on Ellis’s Oriel Chambers or his Ryerson Building[[309]] of the previous year, but broad horizontal windows separated by recessed spandrels. These spandrels are rather like Ellis’s on his other building at 16 Cook Street, but their actual prototypes are to be found, more probably, in Philadelphia buildings by Button such as the one at 723-727 Chestnut Street. The ornament here, now still further chastened, is largely confined to these spandrels. The curved cresting across the top, however, recalls a little the turgid crown of the Rothschild façade.
Sullivan’s early buildings were not very tall, and they did not advance the technical development of the skyscraper. In these same years, however, other Chicago architects were doing so to notable effect. For the ten-storey Montauk Block of 1882-3, tall, but no taller than the first New York skyscrapers of ten years before, Burnham & Root introduced spread foundations to carry its great weight on the muddy Chicago soil, out of which earlier buildings had, literally, to be hoisted every few years. In design they were content, however, with a range of ten almost identical storeys of plain brick pierced by regularly spaced segmental-arched windows. Obvious as this treatment may seem, it took courage to use it at a time when most architects were still trying to disguise the embarrassing height of buildings only half as tall by grouping their storeys together in twos and threes.
The Home Life Insurance Building begun in 1883 was also only ten storeys tall.[[310]] But in building it Jenney invented, or at least introduced in Chicago, what is specifically called ‘skyscraper construction’, that is a method of carrying the external masonry cladding on metal shelves bolted to the internal skeleton. Jenney, however, probably thought he was merely tying together his metal skeleton and his brickwork, not carrying the latter entirely, though this was found to be the case when the structure of the building was carefully examined during its demolition. The Home Insurance Building, in any case, looked far more as if its external walls were bearing than do any of Sullivan’s early works. Jenney, moreover, fought shy of the frankness of Burnham & Root’s treatment of the Montauk Block; instead he phrased his storeys in groups, almost as if several buildings of normal three- or four-storey height had been casually piled one on top of the other.
Before the Home Insurance was finished in 1885 two more major commercial monuments were rising in Chicago, Richardson’s Marshall Field Wholesale Store (Plate [116B]), last but one of the large buildings erected in Chicago with walls entirely of bearing masonry, and Burnham & Root’s Rookery Building (see Chapter [13]). Both were begun in 1885, Richardson’s being finished in 1887 and Burnham & Root’s a year earlier in 1886. The exterior of the eleven-storey Rookery Building is not an example of the stripped ‘functionalism’ that these architects had introduced in their Montauk Block but rather a provincial imitation of the Richardsonian. In the court walls, however, the architects used—and with complete awareness of its implications—the new structural method of Jenney’s Home Insurance Building, carrying the brickwork above the sides of the central glass-roofed lobby entirely on the internal metal[[311]] skeleton.
With the advent of Richardson in 1885, the main lines of development in commercial architecture, both as regards design and as regards construction, might seem to have been concentrated in Chicago. It is well therefore to note again that McKim, Mead & White in their Goelet Building on Broadway in New York of 1885-6 provided almost as frank an expression of the skyscraper, or tall office building of many identical storeys, at least above their Renaissance ground-floor arcade, as did Burnham & Root in the Montauk Block. Their windows, however, were phrased in triplets like Hunt’s on the Tribune Building and also grouped vertically within tall bay-width panels of moulded brick rising with only one break to the cornice. This was a quite frank solution of the problem, and is hardly to be castigated as ‘traditional’ or even as ‘un-functional’. Moreover, another New York building, Babb, Cook & Willard’s De Vinne Press of 1885 in Lafayette Street, is not altogether unworthy of comparison with the Field store. It lacks the regularity and the grandeur of scale of Richardson’s masterpiece, but George F. Babb used his fine red brick in a belated Rundbogenstil way, and not without some conscious reminiscence, one may presume, of Durand’s exemplars of the beginning of the century.
Richardson’s last commercial work, the Ames Building in Harrison Avenue in Boston of 1886-7, on which the arcade was carried the full height of the building and the reveals much reduced, had no immediate influence in Chicago (see Chapter [13]). Sullivan’s first really great work, the Auditorium Building (now Roosevelt College) in Chicago, derived for the most part straight from the Field store, at least as regards the exterior. Designed in 1886 and built in 1887-9, this is a vast and complex edifice, or group of edifices, with a hotel on the Michigan Avenue front, an opera-house entered in the middle of the Congress Street side, and offices along Wabash Avenue at the rear. The walls are all of bearing masonry still. In order to incorporate more storeys than Richardson had ever done, Sullivan carried up his heavy rock-faced granite base through two mezzanine levels and increased the number of floors subsumed by the main arcade which rises from the first storey (Plate [117A]). He also used light stone throughout, instead of the red granite and the brownstone of the Field store, with its surfaces all smooth-cut above the mezzanines.
This flattening of the wall-plane was carried even further on the tower which rises above the portal of the opera-house in Congress Street. On that wide arched panels of very slight projection are filled with articulated screens of stone in which the windows are arranged in a continuous grid with no evident storey lines. The eaves gallery at the top of the tower, a stubby colonnade set in a long horizontal panel with a continuous ribbon-window behind—the window in fact of the Adler & Sullivan office—is so like Thomson’s on the front of his Queen’s Park church of the sixties in Glasgow that it is hard to believe Sullivan did not know it. Yet other evidence indicates that he continued to abjure all European influence at this point in his career.