The Gage Building was Sullivan’s penultimate major work. With the Carson, Pirie & Scott Department Store his career as an architect of big commercial buildings came to an end. This was designed in 1899 and the original three-bay and nine-storey section on Madison Street built in 1899-1901 for Schlesinger & Mayer; it was completed in 1903-4 for the present owners with the erection of the twelve-storey section that runs along State Street.[[317]] This building, which was Sullivan’s swan song, has also seemed to many critics his masterpiece (Plate [121]). It lacks, however, the unity of the earlier Guaranty Building, having been built in two—indeed actually in three—successive campaigns. Despite the prominence of its site in the Chicago Loop, the store is inevitably overshadowed today by later and taller neighbours; nevertheless, it occupies a very high place in the Sullivanian canon.
There is no vertical emphasis except on the rounded pavilion at the corner, where continuous colonnettes rise the full height between the rather narrow bays; this feature was intended from the first but not built until 1903-4. The wide Chicago windows are crisply cut through the white terracotta sheathing just like the windows between the oriels on the Stock Exchange Building. The underlying grid of the structural steel frame—always more horizontal than vertical in effect, as the Reliance Building so clearly reveals—completely controls the surface pattern of the fenestration. On the Guaranty Building Sullivan emphasized the structural piers at their base by bending back the shop-windows of the ground storey; here it was the topmost storey that he set back, revealing the tops of the piers like little free-standing columns beneath the terminal slab in the spirit of his earlier eaves galleries. This treatment—most unfortunately replaced in 1948 by a flush parapet—increased very notably the effect of volume in much the same way as the parallel treatment at the base of the Guaranty.
At the base here, however, the shop-windows are carried up two storeys and given picture-frame-like surrounds, somewhat as on the Gage Building. In the cast-iron ornamentation of these frames, now much simplified, as also in that of the canopy on the north side and around the entrances in the rounded corner pavilion, Sullivan reached a peak of virtuosity in the lush decoration that has seemed to later critics quite at odds with the severe rectangularity of the façades above. There can be no question, however, that Sullivan considered ornament of the greatest importance in architecture and gave to its invention and elaboration his best thought and energy. It is certainly an interesting coincidence, moreover, rather than a matter of influence either way, that in these very years in Europe the newest architectural mode, the Art Nouveau, also put heavy emphasis on a somewhat similar sort of curvilinear decoration, often in association with exposed metal construction, and most notably on department stores (see Chapters [16], [17]).
Sullivan’s ornament never had much influence either at home or abroad. Although Sullivanian skyscrapers of varying size and quality exist in many Middle Western and Far Western cities, most of them built in the first two decades of the new century, only the Rockefeller Building in Cleveland, built in 1903-6 by Knox & Elliot and extended laterally in 1910, really employs ornament, although of a drier and more geometrical order deriving from Owen Jones’s Grammar, in anything like Sullivan’s way. On Sullivan’s own late buildings, mostly tiny banks in small Middle Western towns, and in comparable work by his former assistant George G. Elmslie (1871-1952)[[318]] and William G. Purcell (b. 1880) the ornament tends to get more out of hand than on any of his skyscrapers of the nineties except perhaps the Condict Building. The best of Sullivan’s is the National Farmers’ Bank at Owatonna, Minn., of 1908; but Purcell & Elmslie’s Merchants’ National Bank in Winona, Minn., completed in 1911, might easily be mistaken for Sullivan’s work, for it is of comparable quality.
In the skyscrapers of the late nineties and the first two decades of the twentieth century designed in other Chicago architectural offices, such as D. H. Burnham & Co., Jenney & Mundie, and Holabird & Roche, there was rarely any attempt to vie with Sullivan as an ornamentalist but rather a continuance of the straightforward sort of design of the last-named firm’s Michigan Avenue buildings of 1898-9. A particularly fine and very large example is their Cable Building in Chicago of 1899. In the Fisher Building of 1897, also in Chicago, the Burnham firm more or less repeated the formula of the Reliance Building, but with a profusion of rather archaeological Late Gothic detail, eschewing the New York influence apparent in the Ellicott Square Building of 1895. Jenney & Mundie, rather more than the others, tended to follow the leadership of the New York architects of the day in using academic detail.
On the whole, the Chicago School continued to be vigorous, if not especially creative, down to the First World War, all the way through a period during which New York skyscrapers, still usually conceived as shaped towers rather than as plain slabs, received a succession of different stylistic disguises as they rose higher and higher. The forty-seven-storey (612-foot) Singer Building[[319]] of 1907 by Ernest Flagg (1857-1947) with its curious bulbous mansard—’Beaux-Arts’ of a quite aberrant sort—was followed by the campanile-like 700-foot Metropolitan Tower in Madison Square of 1909 by Napoleon LeBrun & Sons;[[320]] and that in turn by the cathedral-like Late Gothic elaboration of the Woolworth Building[[321]] of 1913 by Cass Gilbert (1859-1934), fifty-two storeys and 792 feet tall, which is still one of the major landmarks of downtown New York (Plate [178]). A new flurry of skyscraper building followed in the twenties (see Chapter [24]). The story with which this chapter is concerned, however, had reached its climax with the Chicago skyscrapers of the nineties, even though they were soon overshadowed in height and in contemporary esteem by the taller and more spectacular towers of Manhattan. Moreover, most of the big cities of the country, including Chicago, eventually sought to imitate the New York mode. But size is not, even in this period, a measure of quality, and the tallest skyscrapers are not the best, any more than the longest bridges are the most beautiful. So far the results of the revival of skyscraper building in the last fifteen years have rather confirmed this judgement (see Chapter [25]).
A difficult question remains to be asked, even if it cannot be very satisfactorily answered: Why was the nineteenth-century development of commercial architecture, from Nash’s Regent Street to Sullivan’s skyscrapers, so completely an Anglo-American achievement? A few reasons may at least be suggested. On the Continent business activity was less concentrated in special urban districts in the nineteenth century, and was hence less likely to develop its own architectural programme. The big new nineteenth-century blocks in cities like Paris and Vienna and Rome generally serve a variety of purposes and almost always consist of residential flats in the upper storeys. In England and in America, on the other hand, most dwellings were still not flats but houses before 1900, and these fled farther and farther from the commercial areas as the nineteenth century progressed. The high property values in the central urban districts of the big Anglo-American cities, rising very rapidly in the second half of the century, encouraged the exploitation of their sites with taller and taller buildings. These values also helped to drive out the earlier inhabitants, leaving such areas as the London City and the Chicago Loop all but deserted after office hours.
Neither the office blocks of London and the big provincial English cities of the fifties and sixties nor, a fortiori, the skyscrapers of New York of the seventies and those of Chicago of the nineties can readily be matched elsewhere—except, of course, to some extent in the British Dominions and Colonies. Yet European cities do offer certain nineteenth-century commercial structures that are of real interest. The covered passages and galeries, from the modest ones of the early decades of the century in Paris to Mengoni’s great Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan (Plate [75B]) of the sixties, offered an urbanistic device of real significance. This is barely to be appreciated in the various extant English and American examples, such as the still flourishing Burlington Arcade in London or the Arcade in Providence, R.I., which is maintained as a historic monument though all but deserted by commerce.
Related to these structures serving multiple business purposes was the gradual development of the department store, a grouping together of various separate shops under one management and one roof, of which the Galeries du Commerce et de l’Industrie in Paris of 1838 were a relatively early example (Plate [62A]). Exploiting like the galeries the possibilities of iron-and-glass roofing, the early Continental examples of the department store had their more modest English and American counterparts such as Owen Jones’s Crystal Palace Bazar of 1858 in London or the Z.C.M.I. in Salt Lake City, founded by the Mormon leader Brigham Young himself and housed in cast iron in 1868.
The most notable later nineteenth-century department stores were in Paris and Berlin. In Paris the still extant Bon Marché of 1876 in the Rue de Sèvres by L. C. Boileau (1837-?), son of the builder of several Second Empire churches of iron, and the engineer Eiffel and the Printemps at the corner of the Rue de Rome and the Boulevard Haussmann of 1881-9 by Paul Sédille (1836-1900) were remarkable in conception if without much distinction of design. However, the Bon Marché is now completely masked externally by a masonry façade of the 1920s, and little of interest remains visible inside the Printemps. Of the portion of the Wertheim Department Store in Berlin built by Alfred Messel (1853-1909) in 1896-9 nothing survives.