The first Napoleon had had no time to carry out any considerable urbanistic reorganization of his French capital. But for the goodwill of his successors, notably Louis Philippe, the architectural projects that he was able to initiate would never have been brought to completion. His nephew, however, vowed to peace and not to war, had nearly two decades in which to build. Well before his reign began, moreover, he had definitely made up his mind to replan Paris more drastically than any great city had ever been replanned before.[[183]] Only a few fine squares, the Champs Élysées, and the Rue de Rivoli remain in Paris from earlier campaigns of urban extension and replanning; but the Paris of the Second Empire, the Paris of the boulevards and the great avenues, is the urbanistic masterwork of the third quarter of the nineteenth century, a period notably deficient in urbanistic achievement almost everywhere else except in Vienna.
For all the sumptuousness of the individual monuments with which the focal points of Napoleon III’s Paris were ornamented, their settings are generally more distinguished than the ‘jewels’ mounted in them; an exception, of course, is the Place de l’Étoile where, however, the jewel was inherited from an earlier period (Plate [7]). This is because of the high standard of design that was maintained in the general run of new blocks of flats that lined the places, the boulevards, and the avenues (Plate [75A]). Since in Second Empire Paris the urban totality is more significant than the individual buildings, and since over the years of the Empire—or for that matter down even to the eighties—there was very little stylistic development, the Parisian production of this period may well be presented more topographically than chronologically, as if one were outlining a tour[[184]] of its splendours.
There is one extant railway station of some distinction belonging to the period at which to arrive. Yet this station, Hittorff’s Gare du Nord designed in 1861 and built in 1862-5, is perhaps less advanced than Duquesney’s Gare de l’Est, which was just being completed as the Second Empire opened (Plate [22B]). The flat Ionic pilasters of the façade and the great archivolt-surrounded openings between them are evidence of the firm resistance that Hittorff’s generation put up against the lusher tastes of the mid century as expressed in Lefuel’s work on the New Louvre. Even more characteristically Romantic Classical, and probably finer though less famous than the Gare du Nord, was Cendrier’s Gare de Lyon, since demolished, which had been built almost a decade earlier at the same time as his Palais de l’Industrie in the early fifties.
Proceeding from Hittorff’s station one strikes immediately the characteristic broad straight streets, often lined with trees, that were the new Second Empire arteries of Paris. The continuous ranges of grey stone buildings, their even skyline crowned with inconspicuous mansards, generally include shops below and always contain flats above. They are so designed as to attract very little attention to the individual structures,[[185]] almost as little as do the separate houses in London terraces. There is much less irregularity of outline than along Nash’s Regent Street, for example, and a general consistency in the size and phrasing of the windows. There is also very little noticeable variety in the handling of the conventional apparatus of academic detail so crisply carved in fine limestone. Even where, by great exception, some bolder architect such as Viollet-le-Duc used more original detail, the unity of character is barely disturbed, so consistent are the basic patterns of the façades (Plate [101A]).
Since the plan of Paris has remained basically radial, the visitor has the choice of proceeding circumferentially along one of the lines of outer or inner boulevards or of turning inwards to the centre. It is more profitable, on the whole, to advance centripetally, for the outer boulevards are generally very monotonous. The Île de la Cité was the original core of Paris; the east-and-west axis of the Louvre, extended westward along the Champs Élysées all the way to the Étoile, already provided a central tract parallel to the Seine; the new cross axis was to be a north and south artery running from the Gare de l’Est to the Observatoire. On the Île the vast complex of the Palais de Justice, whose restoration and extension had been undertaken by Duc as early as 1840, received a notable Second Empire ornament in its western block, facing the Place d’Harcourt, which was built by Duc assisted by E.-T. Dommey (1801-72) in 1857-68. Rationalistic in its structural expression and Classical in most of its detailing, this façade and the hall behind it reflect the tastes of the period in the heavy scale of the parts and the rather cranky—and certainly studied—awkwardness of the modelling of the various conventional elements of the orders and minor features of detail. Duc’s earlier work at the Palais de Justice, on the other hand, was detailed with very great grace and elegance, it may be noted.
The principal Second Empire construction on the east-and-west axis of Paris, the New Louvre, has been described already. Along the north side of the Louvre the Rue de Rivoli was extended eastward in 1851-5 the entire length of the palace with no change in the original Percier and Fontaine design except for the addition of high quadrantal mansards throughout the entire length of the street and its subsidiaries. Even a large new hotel[[186]] was forced into this framework. Yet because of its island site, the high rounded roofs give this block as it is usually seen from the Place du Théâtre Français to the north something of the new plasticity; it thus provided eventually an appropriate terminus to the Avenue de l’Opéra, after that was finally completed under the Third Republic.
Facing the east side of the Louvre, Hittorff balanced the restored Gothic front of Saint-Germain-l’Auxerrois with the new front of the Mairie du Louvre built in 1857-1861. Characteristic of this period in France is the avoidance of Gothic detail on this secular façade in favour of something vaguely François I; yet the pattern of the front of the church is carefully repeated, even to the rose-window in the high-pitched gable, and the new tower by Ballu, on axis between the Church and the Mairie, is Gothic.
Up to the Rond Point, the Champs Élysées is flanked by parked areas on either side and decorated by fountains and other features designed by Hittorff (see Chapter [3]). At the Rond Point there are a few very sumptuous hôtels particuliers, but beyond that the avenue was built up—or more accurately, for the most part, would eventually be built up—like a very broad boulevard flanked by large blocks of flats with shops and cafés below. In the open area on the left between the main axis, the river, and the new quarter which had taken its name ‘François I’ from Biet’s house, lay the Jardin d’Hiver of 1847 and the Palais de l’Industrie of 1853-4. Here also is the Rotonde des Panoramas of 1857 by G.-J.-A. Davioud (1823-81). Around the Arc de l’Étoile, at the far end of the Champs Élysées, are ranged pairs of dignified houses; these were designed by Hittorff with the collaboration of Rohault de Fleury in 1855 and executed in 1857-8 in a mode so academic as to be almost a revival of the style Louis XVI (Plate [7]). The general layout of the place was determined by Haussmann, expanding a much earlier scheme of Hittorff’s.
What is most notable in all this mid-nineteenth-century construction along the main axis of the city is the continuity of taste between the Second Empire period and the period that preceded it. The only real echo of the New Louvre was in the big private houses set back from the Rond Point.
The Avenue de l’Opéra, extending north-westward from the Place du Théâtre Français, has become, since its completion in 1878, the major cross axis, rather than the earlier Boulevard Sébastopol to the east. The Place de l’Opéra, with a short spur of the avenue at its south end, was laid out in 1858; and the façades of the buildings (Plate [70C]) around it began to go up in 1860 from the designs of Rohault de Fleury[[187]] and Henri Blondel (1832-97). The Opéra[[188]] (more properly Académie Nationale de Musique)—after the New Louvre the most conspicuous product of the Second Empire—was begun in 1861 from the design with which J.-L.-C. Garnier (1825-98), a pupil of Lebas who also worked briefly for Viollet-le-Duc, won the second competition held in that year. Although the Garnier design is often thought to be particularly characteristic of the taste of the Imperial couple, it was actually very unpopular with the Empress Eugénie; she had expected the project of her friend Viollet-le-Duc to be accepted and was furious when it failed to win. Substantially completed externally by 1870, the Opéra was not finally finished and opened until January 1875, so that neither Napoleon III nor Eugénie ever entered it.