The stair-hall, the reading-room, and even the minor corridors reveal clearly their Letarouillian origins when they are studied in the architects’ drawings, drawings which imitate the very style of draughtsmanship of Letarouilly’s plates. The stair-hall, executed in yellow Siena marble, has walls decorated allegorically by the French painter Puvis de Chavannes, generally considered the greatest muralist of the age; the delivery room has an entirely different sort of illustrative Shakespearean frieze painted by Edwin A. Abbey; the hall in the top storey contains John Singer Sargent’s most ambitious murals. The associated sculpture by Augustus St Gaudens and others is less interesting; but these notable decorative increments from the hands of painters and sculptors of considerable reputation help to explain why for a generation this building was thought to have initiated a real ‘American Renaissance’ in which all the arts participated. Of this ‘Renaissance’ an international exhibition represented the moment of early triumph.

When, in 1891, it was decided to hold in Chicago the first American international exhibition in recognition of the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus, the initial architectural responsibility lay with the Chicago firm of Burnham & Root. They were working at that very moment on two of the most remarkable of early Chicago skyscrapers, the Reliance Building (Plate [115B]) begun in 1890, which eventually offered the frankest expression of the new all-skeleton construction, and the Monadnock Building begun the next year, which was the last very tall building to have exterior walls of bearing masonry (see Chapter [14]). The more representational Chicago skyscrapers of this period by Burnham & Root, the Women’s Temple and the Masonic Building, were of generically Richardsonian character; and Richardsonian influence was never stronger and more general in Chicago than in the five years following his death. But the principal buildings of the World’s Columbian Exposition,[[293]] as they rose in 1892-3, proved to be neither Richardsonian nor at all expressive of metal construction in the way of those at the Paris Exhibitions of 1878 and 1889 (see Chapter [16]).

Burnham in 1891 called in various leading Eastern architects to assist him in designing the World’s Fair, as the Chicago exhibition was usually called. Then in that same year his partner Root, the designer of the pair, died. So it came about that the Easterners, not so much the ageing Hunt, dean of the profession, as the energetic and executive McKim, called the tune; McKim even provided Burnham with a new designer in the person of Charles B. Atwood (1849-95) to replace Root. The Fair, with the landscape architect Olmsted to collaborate on the planning, came out a great ‘White City’, the most complete new urbanistic concept[[294]] to be realized since the replanning of Paris and of Vienna in the third quarter of the century (Figure [20]).

The metal-and-glass construction of the regular ranges of vast exhibition buildings was almost entirely hidden by the elaborately columniated façades of white plaster that were reflected, dream-like, in Olmsted’s formal lagoons. The architects’ inspiration was generically academic, not specifically Italianate or Classical, and only one or two small State pavilions followed Colonial Revival models. The dominant scale was very large indeed, and the façades of the various buildings, although by many different architects both Eastern and Western, were surprisingly harmonious. The young men back from the École in Paris must have worked overtime to bring up to McKim’s increasingly academic standards the projects of various well-established architects who had been doing more or less Richardsonian work for the last decade.

Figure 20. D. H. Burnham and F. L. Olmsted: Chicago, World’s Fair, 1893, plan

Despite the major importance of the Shavian influence in America around 1880, after the designing of the Villard houses in 1883 American architects moved far more rapidly than Shaw himself along the path towards abstract order and stylistic discipline. The H. A. C. Taylor house introduced, in an American version, the formal eighteenth-century revival—whether one calls it ‘Monumental Queen Anne’ or ‘Neo-Georgian’—before Shaw began his house for Fred White. It is even perhaps significant that this was done for an American client. The World’s Fair of the early nineties brought to the fore a more Classical and ordered sort of Neo-Academicism than Shaw ever reached. By the standards of the next generation, for example, Atwood’s Fine Arts Building at Chicago (Plate [109A]), though based on a Prix de Rome project of 1857, was more advanced than Shaw’s Piccadilly Hotel of 1905-8 (Plate [107]). The Paris Exhibition of 1889 was notable for its great feats of metal construction, Eiffel’s Tower (Plate [130A]) and Contamin’s Galerie des Machines (see Chapter [16]). But the façades of the Grand Palais built for the Paris Exhibition of 1900, executed permanently in stone, seem merely a solider realization of the plaster ‘dream-city’ that Burnham and McKim had conjured up on the Chicago lake-front earlier in the decade.

Whether or not there was really influence from Chicago on Paris in the late nineties, there can be no question that the influence of the Fair in America was very great indeed. While the buildings of the Fair were rising in 1892 the young Frank Lloyd Wright built his Blossom house in Chicago in rather obvious emulation of McKim, Mead & White’s Taylor house (see Chapter [15]). The following year he submitted in competition a completely academic project for a Museum and Library in Milwaukee. Moreover, this project, based on Perrault’s east front of the Louvre, was more suave in its academicism than the buildings that Richardson’s successors, Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, who had already gone over like almost everyone else to the McKim camp, were erecting that year for the Chicago Public Library and for the Chicago Art Institute on Michigan Avenue.

It is the great historical paradox of this period in Chicago that at the very time the academic triumph of the Fair was being prepared, nineteenth-century commercial architecture was also reaching its climax there. Even before Richardson died, his tradition had split in the mid eighties. One side of it, that related to his own French training and his dependence on various styles of the past, limited though that was, as also his growing concern with architectonic order, went forward under the leadership of McKim (see Chapter [24]). The other side, derived from his sense of materials, at once intelligent and intuitive, and his interest in functional expression—the qualities that were most notable in his shingled houses and his commercial buildings—provided the platform from which first Sullivan and then Wright in the late eighties and the nineties advanced to the creation of the first modern architecture (see Chapters [14] and [15]).

If the importance of Richardson and, indeed, that of Shaw—as regards the development of domestic architecture—are to be fully appreciated the stories of the general development of the commercial building and of the dwelling-house in England and America down to 1900 must be known. Of the two, that of commercial architecture is the simpler and also the more dramatic. The culmination of this story in the American skyscrapers of the nineties has been recognized, from the time when so many foreign visitors came to Chicago in 1893 on account of the Fair, as one of the major and most characteristic architectural achievements of the whole period with which this volume deals.