1. Early Period, 476–1000.
2. Transitional Period, 1000–1200.
3. Period of Classic Scholasticism, 1200–1453.
There is one great natural division line of the MiddleAges, the year 1200. At this time the surging of the western peoples eastward in the Crusades was at its height, and the works of Aristotle were coming into western Europe from the East. These events mark a change in the political and intellectual situation in Europe. But this change did not take place suddenly. There are intervening two centuries that are indeed transitional, but at the same time are animated by a distinct and independent philosophical motive. These two centuries may be set apart as a period, different from the earlier and the later periods. We shall call these three periods the Early Period, the Transitional Period, and the Period of Classic Scholasticism.
The Early Period takes us from the fall of old Rome (476) to the birth of modern political Europe (1000). It is a period of religious faith governed by the theology of Augustine. Mysticism has no independent following, but on the contrary rules within the church. The Christian principle of individual personality and the Greek Platonic conception of universal realities are not fused, but they are held without arousing controversy. This is because the human reason has no standard code, nor does it yet feel the need of one. The only two philosophers, Augustine and Erigena, of the period are animated by neo-Platonism.
The Transitional Period extends from the birth of political Europe (1000) to the arrival of the works of Aristotle (about 1200). This epoch is one of logical controversy, in which the Christian and the Greek motives conflict. This controversy gives rise to the first group of great schoolmen, who discuss the reality of general ideas in their application to dogma. Mysticism still rules the churchman, but now in a modified form.Plato has become the standard of the reason in orthodox circles and Aristotle in those inclined to heresy, but as yet only fragments of the works of either are known.
The Period of Classic Scholasticism extends from 1200 to the end of the Middle Ages (1453). It is a period when a theological metaphysics arises by the side of the logical controversy and predominates over that controversy. The problem now concerns the respective scopes of the reason and faith. The period is Aristotelian, and Aristotle’s philosophy is made the standard code for the churchman for all time. Mysticism has now no place of authority in the church, but has an independence. The period contains the greatest schoolmen of the Middle Ages.
| I. Early Period, 476–1000. | |
|---|---|
| 395 The Roman empire divided into Eastern and Western empires. | (Augustine, 354–430) |
476 Fall of the Western empire, the Eastern empire lasting about 1000 years longer. 375–600 Northern barbarians overrun the Western empire in series of invasions. | 476–800 Disappearance of municipal and imperial schools and rise of episcopal and monastic schools. |
| 525 Boëthius died, the last notable Roman scholar who knew Greek. | |
| 529 Closing of philosophical Schools at Athens; founding of monastic school by St. Benedict. | |
| 600 Roman power almost entirely in hands of barbarians. | 476–800 Dark Ages. |
| 622–732 Mohammedans conquer Arabia, Northern Africa, and Spain. | |
| 732 Mohammedans repulsed at the battle of Tours. | |
| 600–800 Fusion took place among German and Roman peoples. | |
| 800 Empire of Charlemagne founded. Civilization higher than the German, lower than the Roman. | 800–1000 Benedictine Age: only period in Western Europe when education is entirely in hands of monks. The Palace school; episcopal, cathedral, and monastery schools. (Erigena, 810–880, the forerunner of Scholasticism.) |
| 900–1000 Empire of Charlemagne broken up. Demoralization. Invasions by Danes and Northmen from the north; Saracens from south by sea; Slavs, Hungarians, Russians, and Poles by land. The church demoralized, Papacy temporarily disappears, feudalism replaces empire. | 900–1000 Dark century with decline of learning. |
| IN THE EARLY PERIOD AND THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD LITTLE OF PLATO WAS KNOWN EXCEPT IN THE FORM OF NEO-PLATONISM AND LITTLE OF ARISTOTLE EXCEPT OF FRAGMENTS OF HIS LOGIC. | |
| II. Transitional Period, 1000–1200. | |
| 1000 France and Germany get their first form as nations just before this year; England just after. Beginning of new birth of Europe, caused by conversions of northern nations, by enlightened rule of the Ottos, by regeneration of Papacy, by development of civic life. Beginning of political order, ecclesiastical discipline, and social tranquillity. Revival of architecture followed by renewal of art. The Romanesque appeared about 1000, the Gothic about 1150. Poetry of Trouvères in north and of Troubadours in south. | First Scholasticism. (Anselm, 1033–1109) (Roscellinus, d. 1110) (Abelard, 1079–1142) |
| 1000 Passion for inquiry takes the place of the old routine. | |
| 1160–1200 Traces of the origination of the earliest universities. | |
| 1150–1250 Translation into Latin directly from Greek of the works of Aristotle, previously unknown in Western Europe. | |
| III. Period of Classic Scholasticism, 1200–1453. | |
| 1200 Crusades at their height. | 1200 The Mendicant Friars. |
| 1200–1453 Commerce of Europe with Asia begins to grow to large proportions in countries on the Mediterranean. The Third Estate grows in strength, national governments prevail over the feudal system. | Classic Scholasticism. (Thomas Aquinas, 1224–1274.) (Duns Scotus, 1270–1308.) (William of Ockam, 1280–1349.) |
| 1300–1453 The period is well supplied with schools. | |
| 1350–1453 Deterioration of Scholasticism. | |