Tufts College, December, 1910.

CONTENTS
VOLUME II. MODERN PHILOSOPHY
(1453 to the Present Time)

CHAPTER I.The Characteristics and Divisions of the Modern Period[1]
The Difficulty in the Study of Modern Philosophy[1]
The Periods of Modern Philosophy[2]
The Causes of the Decay of the Civilization of the Middle Ages[4]
(a)The Internal Causes[4]
(1) The Intellectual Methods were Self-Destructive[4]
(2) The Standard of Truth became a Double Standard[5]
(3) The Development of Mysticism[5]
(4) The Doctrine of Nominalism[5]
(b)The External Causes[6]
CHAPTER II.The Renaissance (1453–1690)[8]
The General Character of the Renaissance[8]
(a)The New Man of the Renaissance[8]
(b)The New Universe of the Renaissance[9]
(1) The Transformation of the Physical Universe[9]
(2) The Restoration of the World of Antiquity[10]
The Significance of the Renaissance in History[11]
Map showing the Decentralization of Europe[13]
The Two Periods of the Renaissance: The Humanistic (1453–1600); The Natural Science (1600–1690)[15]
(a)The Similarities of the Two Periods[16]
(b)The Differences of the Two Periods[16]
(1) The Countries which participate in the Renaissance differ in the Two Periods[16]
(2) The Intellectual Standards differ in the Two Periods[17]
(3) The Scientific Methods in the Two Periods were Different[18]
(4) The Attitude of the Church toward Science differs in the Two Periods[19]
A Brief Contrast of the Two Periods—A Summary of the Discussion above[21]
CHAPTER III.The Humanistic Period of the Renaissance (1453–1600)[22]
The Long List of Representatives of the Humanistic Period[22]
Nicolas of Cusa (1401–1464)[24]
Paracelsus (1493–1541)[25]
Giordano Bruno (1548–1600)[27]
Map showing the Birthplaces of the Chief Philosophers of the Renaissance[30]
CHAPTER IV.The Natural Science Period of the Renaissance (1600–1690)[31]
The Philosophers of the Natural Science Period[31]
The Mathematical Astronomers[32]
Galileo Galilei (1564–1641)[36]
The Life of Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam (1561–1626)[39]
The Position of Bacon in Philosophy[39]
The Aim of Bacon[42]
The Method of Bacon[43]
(a)Bacon’s Criticism of the Past[44]
(b)Bacon’s Positive Construction[45]
The English Natural Science Movement[46]
Thomas Hobbes and his Contemporaries[47]
The Life and Writings of Hobbes (1588–1679)[49]
1. As a Classical Scholar (1588–1628)[49]
2. As Mathematician (1628–1638)[49]
3. As Philosopher (1638–1651)[50]
4. As Controversialist (1651–1668)[50]
5. As Classical Scholar (1668–1679)[50]
The Influences upon the Thought of Hobbes[50]
1. His Premature Birth[50]
2. His Father[51]
3. The New Mathematical Science[52]
The Fundamental Principle in the Teaching of Hobbes[52]
The Method of Hobbes[54]
The Kinds of Bodies[55]
Hobbes’s Application of the Mathematical Theory to Psychology[56]
Hobbes’s Application of the Mathematical Theory to Politics[58]
The Renaissance in England after Hobbes[61]
CHAPTER V.The Rationalism of the Natural Science Period of the Renaissance[62]
The Nature of Rationalism[62]
The Mental Conflict in Descartes[65]
The Life and Philosophical Writings of Descartes (1596–1650)[66]
1. As Child and Student (1596–1613)[66]
2. As Traveler (1613–1628)[66]
3. As Writer (1629–1650)[67]
4. In Stockholm (1649–1650)[67]
The Two Conflicting Influences upon the Thought of Descartes[67]
The Method of Descartes[69]
Induction—Provisional Doubt—The Ultimate Certainty of Consciousness[70]
Deduction—The Implications of Consciousness[72]
The Existence of God[73]
The Reality of Matter[75]
God and the World[77]
The Relation of God to Matter[77]
The Relation of God to Minds[78]
The Relation of Mind and Body[78]
The Influence of Descartes[80]
The Relation of the Occasionalists and Spinoza to Descartes[81]
Portrait of Spinoza[84]
The Historical Place of Spinoza[84]
The Influences upon Spinoza[86]
1. His Jewish Training[86]
2. His Impulse from the New Science—Descartes’ Influence[86]
3. His Acquaintance with the Collegiants[87]
The Life and Philosophical Writings of Spinoza (1632–1677)[88]
1. In Israel (1632–1656)[89]
2. In Retirement (1656–1663)[89]
3. In the Public Eye (1663–1677)[90]
The Method of Spinoza[90]
The Fundamental Principle of Spinoza’s Philosophy[91]
Three Central Problems in Spinoza’s Teaching[93]
The Pantheism of Spinoza—The All-Inclusiveness of God[94]
The Mysticism of Spinoza[98]
Spinoza’s Doctrine of Salvation[102]
Summary of Spinoza’s Teaching[106]
Leibnitz as the Finisher of the Renaissance and the Forerunner of the Enlightenment[107]
The Life and Writings of Leibnitz (1646–1716)[108]
1. Leipsic and University Life (1646–1666)[111]
2. Mainz and Diplomacy (1666–1672)[111]
3. Paris and Science (1672–1676)[111]
4. Hanover and Philosophy (1676–1716)[112]
The Three Influences upon the Thought of Leibnitz[112]
(1) His Early Classical Studies[112]
(2) The New Science and his own Discoveries[113]
(3) Political Pressure for Religious Reconciliation[114]
The Method of Leibnitz[115]
The Immediate Problem for Leibnitz[118]
The Result of Leibnitz’s Examination of the Principles of Science—A Plurality of Metaphysical Substances[119]
1. Leibnitz first scrutinized the Scientific Conception of Motion[119]
2. Leibnitz next examined the Scientific Conception of the Atom[120]
3. Leibnitz then identified Force with the Metaphysical Atom[121]
The Double Nature of the Monads[122]
The Two Forms of Leibnitz’s Conception of the Unity of Substances[125]
The Intrinsic Unity of the Monads—The Philosophical Unity[125]
The Superimposed Unity of the Monads—The Theological Unity[129]
CHAPTER VI.The Enlightenment (1690–1781)[132]
The Emergence of the “New Man”—Individualism[132]
The Practical Presupposition of the Enlightenment—The Independence of the Individual[134]
The Metaphysical Presupposition of the Enlightenment[135]
The Problems of the Enlightenment[135]
(a)Utilitarian Problems[136]
(b)Questions of Criticism[138]
A Comparison of the Enlightenment in England, France, and Germany[140]
The Many Groups of Philosophers of the Enlightenment[140]
Map showing the Birthplaces of some of the Influential Thinkers of the Enlightenment[144]
CHAPTER VII.John Locke[145]
The Enlightenment in Great Britain[145]
John Locke, Life and Writings (1632–1704)[147]
1. Student Life (1632–1666)[147]
2. As Politician (1666–1683)[148]
3. As Philosophical Author (1683–1691)[149]
4. As Controversialist (1691–1704)[149]
The Sources of Locke’s Thought[150]
1. His Puritan Ancestry[150]
2. His Training in Tolerance[150]
3. The Scientific Influence[151]
4. The Political Influence[152]
Summary[153]
The Purpose of Locke[153]
Two Sides of Locke’s Philosophy[155]
(a)The Negative Side—Locke and Scholasticism[156]
(b)The Positive Side—The New Psychology and Epistemology[157]
Locke’s Psychology[158]
Locke’s Theory of Knowledge[160]
Locke’s Practical Philosophy[162]
The Influence of Locke[163]
The English Deists[164]
The English Moralists[166]
Chronological Table of the English Moralists[168]
CHAPTER VIII.Berkeley and Hume[169]
The Life and Writings of George Berkeley (1685–1753)[169]
1. His Early Training (1685–1707)[169]
2. As Author (1707–1721)[170]
3. As Priest and Missionary (1721–1753)[171]
The Influences upon the Thought of Berkeley[172]
The Purpose of Berkeley[173]
Berkeley’s General Relation to Locke and Hume[174]
Berkeley’s Points of Agreement with Locke[175]
The Negative Side of Berkeley’s Philosophy[176]
1. As shown in General in his Analysis of Abstract Ideas[177]
2. As shown in Particular in his Analysis of Matter[177]
The Positive Side of Berkeley’s Philosophy[179]
1.Esse est Percipi[179]
2. The Existence of Mind is assumed by Berkeley[180]
3. Spiritual Substances are Sufficient to explain all Ideas[181]
The Life and Writings of David Hume (1711–1776)[183]
1. Period of Training (1711–1734)[184]
2. Period of Philosopher (1734–1752)[185]
3. Period of Politician (1752–1776)[185]
Influences upon the Thought of Hume[186]
Dogmatism, Phenomenalism, and Skepticism[187]
The Origin of Ideas[189]
The Association of Ideas[191]
The Association of Contiguity[193]
The Association of Resemblance[194]
1. Mathematics[194]
2. The Conception of Substance: Hume’s Attack on Theology[195]
The Association of Causation: Hume’s Attack on Science[196]
The Extent and Limits of Human Knowledge[199]
Hume’s Theory of Religion and Ethics[200]
The Scottish School[201]
CHAPTER IX.The Enlightenment in France and Germany[203]
The Situation in France in the Enlightenment[203]
The English Influence in France[206]
The Two Periods of the French Enlightenment[207]
The Intellectual Enlightenment (1729–1762)—Voltaire, Montesquieu, and the Encyclopædists[208]
Voltaire (1694–1778)[209]
The Encyclopædists[211]
The Social Enlightenment (1762–1789)[213]
Rousseau (1712–1778)[213]
The German Enlightenment (1740–1781)[216]
The Introductory Period (1648–1740). Absolutism[217]
1. The Rise of Prussia[218]
2. The Early German Literature[219]
3. The Pietistic Movement[219]
4. The Transformation of Leibnitz’s Rationalism[220]
Summary of the Literary Enlightenment of Germany (1740–1781)[223]
The Political Enlightenment of Germany—Frederick the Great[224]
The Course of the German Enlightenment[226]
Lessing[228]
CHAPTER X.Kant[230]
The Convergence of Philosophical Influences in Germany[230]
The Three Characteristics of German Philosophy[231]
The Two Periods of German Philosophy[232]
The Influences upon Kant[233]
1. Pietism[233]
2. The Leibnitz-Wolffian Philosophy[233]
3. The Physics of Newton[234]
4. The Humanitarianism of Rousseau[234]
5. The Skepticism of Hume[235]
The Life and Writings of Kant (1724–1804)[235]
The Problem of Kant[238]
The Method of Kant[239]
The Threefold World of Kant—Subjective States, Things-in-Themselves, and Phenomena[240]
The World of Knowledge[243]
The Place of Synthesis in Knowledge[245]
The Judgments Indispensable to Human Knowledge[248]
The Proof of the Validity of Human Knowledge[252]
1. In what does the Validity of Sense-Perception consist?[253]
2. In what does the Validity of the Understanding consist?[255]
Has the Reason by itself any Validity?[260]
The Idea of the Soul[262]
The Idea of the Universe[264]
The Idea of God[265]
Conclusion[268]
The Problem of the Critique of Practical Reason: The Ethics of Kant[269]
The Moral Law and the Two Questions concerning it[271]
1. The First Question concerning the Moral Law[272]
2. The Second Question concerning the Moral Law[273]
The Moral Postulates[275]
1. The Postulate of Freedom[276]
2. The Postulate of the Immortality of the Soul[276]
3. The Postulate of the Existence of God[276]
CHAPTER XI.The German Idealists[278]
Idealism after Kant[278]
Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel[279]
Map showing the University Towns and other Important Places connected with the German Idealists[280]
The Life and Writings of Fichte (1762–1814)[282]
1. His Education (1762–1790)[283]
2. Discipleship of Kant (1790–1794)[283]
3. His Life at Jena (1794–1799)[284]
4. His Life at Berlin (1799–1814)[284]
The Influences upon Fichte’s Teaching[285]
Why we Philosophize[286]
The Moral Awakening[287]
The Central Principle in Fichte’s Philosophy[288]
The Moral World[290]
God and Man[292]
What a Moral Reality involves[293]
1. It involves the Consciousness of Something Else[293]
2. It involves a Contradiction[294]
Romanticism[295]
Goethe as a Romanticist[297]
Romanticism in Philosophy[299]
The Life and Writings of Schelling (1775–1854)[300]
1. Earlier Period (1775–1797)[302]
2. The Philosophy of Nature (1797–1800)[302]
3. The Transcendental Philosophy (1800–1801)[302]
4. The Philosophy of Identity (1801–1804)[303]
5. The Philosophy of Freedom and God (1804–1809)[303]
6. The Philosophy of Mythology and Revelation (1809–1854)[303]
A Brief Comparison of Fichte and Schelling as Philosophers[303]
Schelling’s Philosophy of Nature[305]
Schelling’s Transcendental Philosophy[307]
The System of Identity[310]
Schelling’s Religious Philosophy[311]
Hegel and the Culmination of Idealism[312]
Why Hegel remains to-day the Representative of Kant[314]
The Life and Writings of Hegel (1770–1831)[315]
1. Formative Period (1770–1796)[317]
2. Formulation of his Philosophy (1796–1806)[317]
3. Development of his Philosophy (1806–1831)[317]
Realism, Mysticism, and Idealism[318]
The Fundamental Principles of Hegel’s Idealism[321]
The Cosmic Unity[322]
The Cosmic Law[326]
Hegel’s Application of his Theory[328]
CHAPTER XII.The Philosophy of the Thing-in-Itself[330]
Herbart and Schopenhauer[330]
Johann Friedrich Herbart[332]
The Life and Writings of Herbart (1776–1841)[333]
The Contradictions of Experience[334]
The Argument for Realism[334]
The Many Reals and Nature Phenomena[337]
The Soul and Mental Phenomena[338]
Arthur Schopenhauer and his Philosophical Relations[340]
The Life and Writings of Schopenhauer (1788–1860)[342]
1. Period of Education (1788–1813)[343]
2. Period of Literary Production (1813–1831)[343]
3. Period of Retirement (1831–1860)[343]
The Influences upon Schopenhauer’s Thought[343]
The World as Will and the World as Idea[345]
The Will as Irrational Reality[347]
The Misery of the World as Idea—Pessimism[348]
The Way of Deliverance[349]
CHAPTER XIII.The Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century[352]
The Return to Realism[352]
The Character of the Realism of the Nineteenth Century[353]
Modern Philosophy and German Idealism[355]
The Philosophical Problems of the Nineteenth Century[356]
1. The Problem of the Functioning of the Soul[357]
2. The Problem of the Conception of History[360]
INDEX[365]

ILLUSTRATIONS

Immanuel Kant [Frontispiece]
Map showing the Decentralization of Europe [13]
Map showing the Birthplaces of the Chief Philosophers of the Renaissance [30]
Baruch de Spinoza [84]
Map showing the Birthplaces of some of the Influential Thinkers of the Enlightenment [144]
Map showing the University Towns and other Important Places connected with the German Idealists [280]

A BEGINNER’S HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
VOLUME II

MODERN PHILOSOPHY (1453 TO THE PRESENT TIME)

CHAPTER I
THE CHARACTERISTICS AND DIVISIONS OF THE MODERN PERIOD