Footnotes.

[1] – Read Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 303–321; Windelband, History of Philosophy, pp. 348–351; Dewing, Introduction to Modern Philosophy, pp. 52–54.
[2] – Read Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 321–331; Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 352–354.
[3] – Read Falckenberg, Hist. of Modern Phil., pp. 27–28; Browning, Paracelsus; Goethe, Faust, lines 1–165.
[4] – These two phrases will be found again in the philosophy of Spinoza. Nature is conceived as having two aspects: one is natura naturans, or God as the animating principle of nature; the other is natura naturata, or the world as materialized forms or effects.
[5] – Read Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 378–379.
[6] – Induction and deduction are methods of reasoning. Induction is the method of beginning with particular cases and inferring from them a general conclusion. Deduction is the opposite method of reasoning.
[7] – Read Höffding, Hist. of Phil., vol. i, p. 175; Ball, Hist. of Math., pp. 249 ff.; Falckenberg, Hist. of Mod. Phil., pp. 59 ff.
[8] – An example used by Galileo is the law of the velocity of falling bodies in empty space.
[9] – The name, “concomitant variations,” was later given by John Stuart Mill.
[10] – Read Ball, Hist. of Math., pp. 253 ff.; Höffding, Hist. of Mod. Phil., vol. i, pp. 184–186; Macaulay, Essay on Bacon; Bacon, Essays,—Studies, Truth, Friendship, Simulation, and Dissimulation; Abbott, Francis Bacon; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 336–344; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 24–56.
[11] – Bacon wrote his New Atlantis in 1623. The same year Campanella wrote his State of the Sun, and the preceding year Thomas More wrote his Utopia.
[12] – Utilitarianism regards adaptation to general happiness as the ideal of society. Positivism, broadly used, is that philosophy which limits the scope of thought to the observation of facts, although the observations are inferior to the facts. The data and methods of positivism are the same as those of natural science, and opposed to the a priori methods of metaphysics.
[13] – In this connection read Herbert Spencer, Education.
[14] – Bacon chooses the word Idols, because it is the same as the Greek word for false forms (eidola, εἴδολα).
[15] – Bacon is here alluding to Plato’s myth of the cave. Read Plato, Republic (Jowett’s trans.), Bk. VII, 514 A–520 E.
[16] – Bacon is satirical here and is likening philosophical systems to stage-plays.
[17] – But see the contradiction in the theory of Hobbes.
[18] – Read Robertson, Hobbes (Blackwood’s Phil. Classics), pp. 204–206; Falckenberg, Hist. Mod. Phil., pp. 71–72; Encyclopædia Britannica, article, “Hobbes”; Leslie Stephen, Hobbes; Watson, Hedonistic Theories, pp. 73–94; Turner, Hist. Phil., pp. 443–446; Windelband, Hist. Phil., p. 389; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 359–360; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 57–69, 80–84.
[19] – See also the ideal States of Campanella and Bacon, p. 41.
[20] – The theory that the assumption of extended, impenetrable, eternal, and moving bodies explains the universe.
[21] – The theory that all knowledge originates in sensations; that all complex mental states (like memory, reason, etc.) are only combinations of elementary sensations.
[22] – The theory that between alternative courses of conduct the choice decided upon is fully accounted for by psychological and other pre-conditions.
[23] – The theory sometimes meaning materialism, sometimes positivism, but sometimes, as here, meaning that man in all his operations is a product of his environment.
[24] – Read Falckenberg, Hist. Mod. Phil., p. 72, for his quotation from Grimm’s criticism of the irreconcilable contradiction of the empirical and the rational in Hobbes.
[25] – Empiricism and Rationalism have reference to the source of truth. Empiricism is the theory that truth is to be found in immediate sense experience. The opposite theory is Rationalism, which declares that the reason is an independent source of knowledge, distinct from sensation, and having a higher authority.
[26] – Read Robertson, Hobbes (Blackwood Phil. Classics), p. 40; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 117–147; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 351–362; Calkins, Persistent Problems, pp. 459–463.
[27] – Read Descartes, Method, Meditations, for the dramatic struggle of his inner life; Falckenberg, Hist. Modern Phil., pp. 86–88; Fischer, Descartes and his School, p. 199; Blackwood Classics, Descartes, pp. 144–149; Windelband, Hist. Phil., pp. 389 ff.; Höffding, Hist. Modern Phil., pp. 219 ff.; Weber, Hist. Phil., pp. 306 ff., for an opposing opinion about the place of Descartes.
[28] – Read Falckenberg, Hist. of Modern Phil., pp. 92–94; Blackwood’s Classics, Descartes, pp. 151–153; Weber, Hist. of Phil., p. 310; Calkins, Persistent Problems in Philosophy, pp. 25–30; Turner, Hist. of Phil., pp. 451 f., which presents Descartes’ arguments as reduced to two.
[29] – Read Royce, Spirit of Modern Phil., chap. iii; Baldwin, Fragments in Philosophy, pp. 24–42; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 148–166; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 362–380.
[30] – See [page 279]. Read Goethe, Geheimnisse, in this connection.
[31] – Read Auerbach, Spinoza, an historical romance.
[32] – Read Bohn’s Libraries, Spinoza, vol. ii, pp. 275 ff., for Spinoza’s interesting correspondence with notable men.
[33] – Read Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 199–214; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 388–405; Weber, History of Philosophy, pp. 343–369; Hibben, Phil. of Enlightenment, pp. 161–193.
[34] – A good selection of Leibnitz’s works for the student to read is: Discourse on Metaphysics (1690), Letters to Arnauld, Monadology (1714), New System of Nature (1695), Principles of Nature and Grace (1714), Introduction to New Essays (1704), and the Theodicy (1710). See Calkins, Persistent Problems in Phil., p. 74, note.
[35] – Read Hibben, Phil. of Enlightenment, ch. vii; Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 420–425.
[36] – Read Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 437–440, 447–449, 500–502; Hibben, Phil. of Enlightenment, pp. 3–13, 18–20.
[37] – Read Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 215–217, 248–262; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 380–388.
[38] – See Essay, introductory epistle to the reader.
[39] – Read Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought, vol. i, pp. 86–88.
[40] – Read Royce, Spirit of Modern Philosophy, p. 86; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 263–277.
[41] – Berkeley and Hume were really also dualists, like Locke and all other Enlighteners. The ideas were substituted by them for material substances. As objects of knowledge the ideas were antithetical to the knowing process. Hume tried to overcome this dualism, but he was not successful in his attempt.
[42] – Read Hibben, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, chap. iii.
[43] – Hibben, Phil. of Enlightenment, p. 64.
[44] – Read Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 326–342; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 420–422; Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 472–476.
[45] – Causal events are to Hume merely alleged matters of fact.
[46] – Read Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 415–420.
[47] – Voltaire’s Letters on the English were written in 1728, published first in London, and appeared in France in 1734. His Elements of the Philosophy of Newton was published in Amsterdam in 1738, but was not allowed to be published in France until 1741.
[48] – Read Ueberweg, Hist. of Phil., vol. ii, pp. 124–125.
[49] – Read Morley, Diderot, vol. i, ch. v, pp. 113–171.
[50] – Read Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 347–375.
[51] – Read Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 423–433.
[52] – In a real sense the German Enlightenment has never come to an end. Classicism and the Romantic movement were a continuation of it.
[53] – Read Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 529–531.
[54] – Read the quotation from Heine in E. Caird, Phil. of Kant, vol. i, p. 63; Stirling, Textbook to Kant, Biographical Sketch; Royce, Spirit of Modern Philosophy, chap. iv; Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 532–534; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 376–405, 420–424; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 435–452.
[55] – The word “world” is used for lack of a better. The reader is, however, again reminded that Kant’s problem is one of epistemology and not of metaphysics.
[56] – Paulsen says (Immanuel Kant, His Life and Teaching, p. 135) that this formula of synthetic judgments a priori appears only in the introduction to the Critique and in Kant’s later writings, and it would have been no misfortune if Kant had never discovered it. But Windelband (Hist. of Phil., p. 533, n. 2) says, “No one who does not make this clear to himself has any hope of understanding Kant.”
[57] – Quoted from Falckenberg, Hist. of Modern Phil., p. 387. This is a paraphrase of some of Schiller’s verses in The Philosophers, a satirical poem of philosophical theories.
[58] – Kant’s theory of Beauty, discussed in his Critique of Judgment, through which he tries to reconcile the antagonism of knowledge and morality, is omitted here.
[59] – Read Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 568–569.
[60] – Read Royce, Spirit of Modern Phil., chap. v; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 486–490; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 486–496, 516–535; Windelband, Hist. of Phil., pp. 579–581.
[61] – Read Beers, History of Romanticism in Eighteenth Century, pp. 1–25; Beers, History of Romanticism in Nineteenth Century, pp. 132–139.
[62] – Read Royce, Spirit of Modern Philosophy, ch. vi.
[63] – Read Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 457–464, 490–494; Wernaer, Romanticism and the Romantic School in Germany, pp. 132–143; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 535–568.
[64] – Read Shelley, Love’s Philosophy.
[65] – Read Schiller, Artists; Letters on Æsthetic Education.
[66] – F. E. D. Schleiermacher, b. 1768; educated in the Herrnhuten institutions and at the University of Halle; in 1796 preacher at the Berlin Charité; in 1802 court preacher at Stolpe; in 1804 professor extraordinary at Halle; in 1809 preacher at a church in Berlin; in 1810 professor in Berlin University.
[67] – Read Royce, Spirit of Modern Phil., chap. vii; James, Hibbert Journal, 1908–09, pp. 63 ff.; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 494–507; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 569–574, 583–592, 614–628.
[68] – Read Ribot, German Psychology of To-day, pp. 24–67; Weber, History of Philosophy, pp. 536–543; Dewing, Introduction to Modern Philosophy, pp. 230–235.
[69] – A discussion of these contradictions can be found in any text-book in metaphysics.
[70] – The “principle of contradiction” in logic is the prohibition to commit contradiction.
[71] – Read Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 510–518; Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 629–671.
[72] – Read Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám, FitzGerald’s translation, 4th ed., quatrains xlvii–lxxiii; Goethe, Sorrows of Werther, as an example of pessimism due mainly to environment.
[73] – Read Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 703–708; Weber, Hist. of Phil., §§ 69, 70; Eucken, Problem of Human Life, pp. 518–523, 524–553, 559–573; Nietzsche, Also Sprach Zarathustra; James, Pragmatism, Lectures I, IV, VII; Royce, Spirit of Mod. Phil., Lecture IX.
[74] – Royce, The World and the Individual, vol. i, pp. 60 f.
[75] – Read Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, pp. 672–689.

Transcriber’s Notes.

The following corrections have been made in the text:
[⭘] – ‘Persception’ replaced with ‘Perception’
(Validity of Sense-Perception consist?)
[⭘] – ‘homogenous’ replaced with ‘homogeneous’
(in a homogeneous whole,)
[⭘] – ‘Wolffenbüttel’ replaced with ‘Wolfenbüttel’
(Wolfenbüttel Fragments)
[⭘] – ‘Leeuwenhook’ replaced with ‘Leeuwenhoek’
(of Swammerdam and Leeuwenhoek)
[⭘] – ‘speculalation’ replaced with ‘speculation’
(against scholastic speculation and abstraction;)
[⭘] – ‘Wackenrode’ replaced with ‘Wackenroder’
(Tieck, Wackenroder, Novalis,)
[⭘] – ‘thing-it-itself’ replaced with ‘thing-in-itself’
(while the thing-in-itself was)
[⭘] – ‘Tommasso’ replaced with ‘Tommaso’
(Campanella, Tommaso)
[⭘] – ‘223’ replaced with ‘213’
(213 n.)
[⭘] – ‘scepticism’ replaced with ‘skepticism’
(the skepticism of, influenced Kant)
[⭘] – ‘fundanental’ replaced with ‘fundamental’
(the fundamental principle in)
[⭘] – ‘preëstabished’ replaced with ‘preëstablished’
(a preëstablished harmony)