PLATES
[I. a, Village Scene in Arid Mexico; b, In the Humid Lowlands] 15 [II. a, Site of Pueblo Viejo, the First Capital of Guatemala; b, A Spanish Church at the Village of Camotan on the Road to Copan] 23 [III. a, View of the Island Town of Flores in Lake Peten; b, The Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza] 28 [IV. a, A Guatemalan huipili; b, Pouches of the Valiente Indians] 40 [V. a, Zapotecan Girl from the State of Oaxaca; b, Lacondone Man from Southern Mexico] 42 [VI. a, Cuicuilco. A view showing cobblestone facing of mound and lava in contact with apron or causeway; b, Archaic Site under Lava Flow near Mexico City] 50 [VII. Large Archaic Figures found in Graves and offering Evidence of Ancient Customs and Arts and also showing a Quality of Caricature or possibly Portraiture] 54 [VIII. Two Stages in the Stone Sculptures of Costa Rica] 60 [IX. a, Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period; b, Typical Site of the Archaic Period] 62 [X. Widely Distributed Female Figurines] 65 [XI. Distribution of the Archaic Culture] 69 [XII. Distribution of Agriculture in the New World] 70 [XIII. A General View of the Ceremonial Center of Copan] 72 [XIV. a, View of the Plaza at Copan from the Northwestern Corner; b, View Across the Artificial Acropolis at Copan] 74 [XV. a, Model of the Temple of the Cross, Palenque, designed to show the Construction; b, Detail of Frieze on the Temple of the Cross] 76 [XVI. A Temple of Hochob showing Elaborate Facade Decorations in Stucco] 80 [XVII. A Sealed Portal Vault in the House of the Governor at Uxmal] 82 [XVIII. a, Realistic Designs on Vases from Chamá, Guatemala; b, The Quetzal as represented on a Painted Cylindrical Vase from Copan] 85 [XIX. Stela 13, Piedras Negras] 96 [XX. a, Top of Stela 1 at Yaxchilan; b, Analogous Detail of Stela 4, Yaxchilan] 102 [XXI. Development in Style of Carving at Copan] 107 [XXII. Scheme of the Mayan Calendar as presented in the Codex Tro-Cortesianus] 116 [XXIII. Typical Mayan Inscription] 122 [XXIV. Page 24 Dresden Codex] 130 [XXV. a, Detail of the Dresden Codex showing Tzolkin used in Divination; b, Analysis of the above Tzolkin, according to Förstemann] 134 [XXVI. General View of Monte Alban from the North] 152 [XXVII. Detail of Monte Alban showing Wall Foundations and Small Cell-like Rooms] 155 [XXVIII. Zapotecan Art: Incense Burners, Funerary Vases of Portrait Type, Cruciform Tomb with Geometric Decoration] 158 [XXIX. a, Sculpture of Stone of the Early Zapotecan Period; b, Jade Tablets pierced for Suspension] 162 [XXX. Laughing Head of the Totonacs] 166 [XXXI. a, An Elaborately Carved Stone Collar; b, A Palmate Stone from the State of Vera Cruz] 168 [XXXII. The Temple of Xochicalco before Restoration] 174 [XXXIII. Two Views of the Principal Pyramid in the Citadel at Teotihuacan] 176 [XXXIV. a, Partial View of the Great Pyramid at Cholula; b, A View at La Quemada] 181 [XXXV. Stone Slab from an Ancient Sepulcher in the State of Guerrero] 186 [XXXVI. a, Finely Carved Ceremonial Slab found at Mercedes, Costa Rica; b, Stone Figure from Costa Rica; c, Ceremonial Slab decorated with Monkeys, Mercedes, Costa Rica] 192 [XXXVII. a, The Gold Work of the Ancient Mexicans; b, Ornament of Gold from Costa Rica] 196 [XXXVIII. A Page from the Tribute Roll of Moctezuma] 200 [XXXIX. A Page from the Codex Telleriano Remensis] 202 [XL. Serpent Head at Bottom of Balustrade, Great Pyramid, Mexico City] 206 [XLI. Sahagun’s Plan of the Tecpan in Mexico City] 212 [XLII. The Calendar Stone of the Aztecs] 214 [XLIII. The Shield Stone at Cuernavaca] 216 [XLIV. The Newly Discovered “National Stone” of Mexico] 220 [XLV. Sculpture representing Coatlicue, the Serpent-Skirted Goddess] 222 [XLVI. Page from the Tonalamatl Section of the Codex Borbonicus] 228 [XLVII. a, Picture of Tlaloc, the God of Rain, and of Ehecatl, the God of Winds, in the Codex Magliabecchiano; b, Mexican Genealogical Table on Amatl Paper] 230
TEXT FIGURES
[1. The Great Snowstorm of 1447 shown in the Pictographic Record of the Aztecs] 13 [2. A Mexican Picture of a Volcanic Eruption] 16 [3. Yucatan Deer caught in a Snare] 20 [4. The Moan Bird, or Yucatan Owl, personified as a Demigod] 20 [5. Spanish Ship in the Aubin Codex] 22 [6. Cortez arrives with Sword and Cross and Moctezuma brings him Gold] 25 [7. Aztecan Canoe. Lienzo de Tlaxcala] 26 [8. Design on Modern Huichol Ribbon] 37 [9. Woven Pouch of the Huichol Indians] 37 [10. Atzcapotzalco Destroyed] 47 [11. Diagram of Culture Strata at Atzcapotzalco] 48 [12. Teocentli or Mexican Fodder Grass] 51 [13. Archaic Figurines from Central Mexico] 55 [14. Archaic Figurines—Zapotlan, Jalisco; Tampico, Vera Cruz; and Cuesta Blanca, Salvador] 55 [15. Archaic Figurine from Salvador] 56 [16. Types of Eyes of Archaic Figurines] 57 [17. Textile Designs painted on Archaic Effigies] 58 [18. Typical Tripod Vessels of the Archaic Period, from Morelos, Mexico] 59 [19. Series showing the Modification of a Celt into a Stone Amulet] 61 [20. Groundplans of Yaxchilan Temples] 77 [21. Cross-section of Typical Mayan Temple in Northern Yucatan] 78 [22. Mask Panel over Doorway at Xkichmook, Yucatan] 84 [23. Design on Engraved Pot representing a Tiger seated in a Wreath of Water Lilies. Northern Yucatan] 86 [24. Painted Design on Cylindrical Bowl showing Serpent issuing from a Shell Salvador] 86 [25. Mayan Basket represented in Stone Sculpture] 88 [26. Typical Elaborated Serpents of the Mayas] 90 [27. Conventional Serpent of the Mayas used for Decorative Purposes] 91 [28. Upper Part of Serpent Head made into a Fret Ornament] 92 [29. Sculpture on Front of Lintel at Yaxchilan] 93 [30. Types of Human Heads on the Lintels of Yaxchilan] 94 [31. Sculpture on Upper Part of Stela 11, Seibal] 95 [32. The Ceremonial Bar] 98 [33. The Manikin Scepter] 99 [34. The Two-Headed Dragon] 100 [35. Gods in the Dresden Codex] 101 [36. The Front Head of the Two-Headed Dragon on Stelæ at Piedras Negras showing the Increase in Flamboyant Treatment] 105 [37. Grotesque Face on the Back of Stela B, Copan] 108 [38. Jaguar in Dresden Codex with a Water Lily attached to Forehead] 108 [39. Late Sculpture from Chichen Itza] 109 [40. The Twenty Day Signs] 112 [41. The Nineteen Month Signs of the Mayan Year] 115 [42. Bar and Dot Numerals of the Mayas] 119 [43. Face Numerals found in Mayan Inscriptions] 121 [44. The Normal Forms of the Period Glyphs] 121 [45. Face Forms of Period Glyphs] 121 [46. Hieroglyphs of the Four Directions] 127 [47. Hieroglyphs containing the Phonetic Element kin] 127 [48. Mayan Ceremony as represented in the Dresden Codex] 132 [49. Diagram of the Astronomical Base Line at Copan giving Readings at April 9 and September 2] 138 [50. Representations of the Moon] 142 [51. The Last Glyph of the Supplementary Series] 142 [52. Comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan Serpent Heads] 156 [53. Bar and Dot Numerals combined with Hieroglyphs on Zapotecan Monuments] 157 [54. Detail of Wall Construction at Mitla] 161 [55. Wall Paintings of Mitla] 163 [56. The Eyes of Totonacan Figurines] 165 [57. Jointed Doll of Clay from San Juan Teotihuacan] 178 [58. Pottery Plates from Cholula with Decorations in Several Colors] 180 [59. Vessel with “Cloisonné” Decoration in Heavy Pigments] 184 [60. The Turtle Motive as developed in Negative Painting with Wax at Totoate, Jalisco] 185 [61. Jaguar Head on Disk-Shaped Stone, Salvador] 187 [62. Front View and Profile View Serpent Heads in Chorotegan Art] 190 [63. Jaguar Design associated with Figurines that still retain Archaic Characters, Costa Rica] 191 [64. Jaguars from painted Nicoyan Vases] 191 [65. Highly Conventionalized Jaguar Motive] 193 [66. Simple Crocodile Figures in Red Lines on Dishes from Mercedes, Costa Rica] 194 [67. Panels containing Crocodiles painted in White Lines on Large Tripod Bowls from Mercedes, Costa Rica] 194 [68. Simplified Crocodile Heads in the Yellow Line Ware of Mercedes, Costa Rica] 194 [69. Conventional Crocodiles from Costa Rica and Panama] 197 [70. Pictographic Record of the Fighting near the Springs of Chapultepec] 207 [71. Details from the Stone of Tizoc] 219 [72. Detail showing the Construction of the Face of Coatlicue] 223 [73. Hieroglyphs of Precious Materials] 224 [74. Phonetic Elements derived from Pictures and used in Mexican Place Name Hieroglyphs] 224 [75. Aztecan Place Names] 225 [76. Aztecan Day Signs] 226 [77. Variant Forms of Aztecan Day Signs] 226 [78. Aztecan Numbers and Objects of Commerce] 227 [79. Analysis of Mexican Record] 231 [80. Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess of Water] 232 [81. A Mexican Orchestra] 241 [82. Mexican Blanket with the Design that represents interlacing Sand and Water called “Spider Water”] 243 [83. The Year Symbol of Southern Mexico] 245 [84. Year Bearers in the Codex Porfirio Diaz ascribed to the Cuicatecan Tribe] 246 [85. A Page from the Codex Nuttall, recording the Conquest of a Town situated on an Island of the Sea] 247 [86. The God Macuilxochitl, Five Flower, as shown in a Mexican Codex and in Pottery from Southern Mexico] 248
INTRODUCTION
Geography and Natural Environment.
Unfortunately the terms “Mexico and Central America” are not mutually exclusive. Central America is a natural division comprised between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Isthmus of Panama. Mexico is a political division that includes several states in Central America, namely, Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, and the territory of Quintana Roo. The ancient high cultures of Mexico hardly extended as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and the region beyond this is of slight interest to us. Positions south of Mexico will often be referred to the areas of the modern political units although these have no immediate relation to pre-Spanish conditions. These political units are: Guatemala, British Honduras, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
Fig. 1. The Great Snowstorm of 1447 shown in the Pictographic Record of the Aztecs called Codex Telleriano Remensis.
Although lying within the tropics, the territory extending from the Isthmus of Panama to Central Mexico exhibits great extremes of climate and topography and hence of plant and animal life. The year is everywhere divided into a wet and a dry season but the relative duration of each depends upon land form and altitude. The coast of the Pacific is considerably drier than that of the Atlantic. Three climatic zones are generally recognized, namely, the Tierra Caliente (Hot Land), Tierra Templada (Temperate Land), and Tierra Fria (Cold Land), and in some regions each of these has an arid and a humid strip. The change from luxuriant forests to open thorny deserts is often very sudden. On the high plateau or Tierra Fria the natural warmth of the latitude is largely overcome by the altitude. In the Valley of Mexico snow falls only at rare intervals, yet chilling winds are common in the winter. Much of the plateau from Mexico south into Guatemala is open farming land well suited to the raising of maize and wheat where water is sufficient. The shoulders of the mountains bear forests of pine and oak while the highest peaks are crowned with perpetual snow.