CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME.
| CHAPTER I. LAST DAYS OF SPANISH RULE. 1801-1818. | |
| PAGE | |
| Popular Feeling in Central America—Effect of Events in Spain—Recognitionof American Equality—Representation in the Spanish Córtes—DelusiveReforms—End of Saravia's Rule—President José Bustamante—HisDespotic Course—Demands in the Córtes—ConstitutionalGuarantees—Official Hostility—Campaign in Oajaca—RevolutionaryMovements in Salvador—War in Nicaragua—Conspiracy inGuatemala—Treatment of the Insurgents—Disrespect to the Diputacion—TheConstitution Revoked—Royal Decrees | [1] |
| CHAPTER II. INDEPENDENCE ACHIEVED. 1818-1821. | |
| President Cárlos Urrutia—His Liberal Views—Colombian Assaults—SpanishConstitution Restored—The Gazistas, or Bacos—The Cacos—Josédel Valle—Pedro Molina—Liberal Institutions—Extent ofthe Political Government—Ecclesiastical Administration—Work ofAmerican Deputies—Party Excitement in Guatemala—Urrutia Delegateshis Powers—Substitute President Gavino Gainza—Chiapas andher Government—She Secedes from Spain and Joins the MexicanEmpire—Guatemala Declares for Independence—Junta Gubernativa—Convocationof a Congress | [23] |
| CHAPTER III. UNION WITH MEXICO. 1821-1822. | |
| First Acts of Guatemalan Rulers—Intrigues of Parties—Their Evil Consequences—Gainza'sIntrigues—Independence in the Other Provinces—Rewardsto Gainza—Troubles in Salvador—Dissensions inHonduras—Local Squabbles in Nicaragua—Predilection for Imperialism—CostaRica Neutral—Condition of Various Sections—SecedingDistricts of Guatemala—Perplexities of the Junta Consultiva—Iturbide'sDevices—Military Pressure—His Proposals Accepted—IllegalAnnexation—Protests and Resistance—War Begins | [42] |
| CHAPTER IV. CENTRAL AMERICAN CONFEDERATION. 1822-1825. | |
| Secession from Mexico—Arzú's Campaign—Prevarication of Salvador—Filisola'sVictory—His Subsequent Course—Liberal Triumph inCosta Rica—Honduras Favors Union—National Independence Secured—Laborsto Organize a Nation—The Constituent Assembly—ProvinciasUnidas del Centro de América—Abolition of AfricanSlavery—Provisional Government—Moderados or Serviles—Liberalesor Fiebres—Principles and Aims of Parties—Mexican ForcesRetire—Seditions Begin—Salvadoran Force in Guatemala—Confederacionde Centro América—Fundamental Law—Finances—Adjournmentof the Constituent Assembly | [60] |
| CHAPTER V. CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT. 1825-1830. | |
| General Elections—Meeting of the First Congress—Manuel José Arce,First President of the Republic—Foreign Relations—Arce's Prevarications—Conflictwith Guatemala—Party Bickerings—LiberalsQuarrel with Arce—He Joins their Opponents—Bitterness Engendered—Presidentversus Guatemalan Rulers—Arrest of Jefe JuanBarrundia—Riots at Quezaltenango—Murder of Vice-jefe CiriloFlores—Arce as Dictator in Guatemala—War against Salvador—ArceDefeated—He Gives up the Presidency, and Cannot Recover It—BloodyWar of 1826-9—Morazan the Victor—José Francisco Barrundia,Acting President—Liberal Measures—Peace Restored—SpanishSchemes | [79] |
| CHAPTER VI. CIVIL WAR. 1829-1838. | |
| Revolution in Honduras—Conservatives Invade the State—Second GeneralElections—Francisco Morazan Chosen President—Plots of theServiles—Arce's Invasion from Mexico—Occupation of HondurasPorts by Exiled Rebels—Spanish Flag Hoisted in Omoa, and Aidfrom Cuba—Salvadoran Authorities in Rebellion—Third GeneralElections—Morazan Reëlected—Failure of Colonization Plans—Ravagesof Cholera—Indian Revolt under Carrera—His Early Life | [108] |
| CHAPTER VII. DISSOLUTION OF THE REPUBLIC. 1837-1840. | |
| Campaign against Carrera—Several Departments of Guatemala in Rebellion—JefeGalvez Deposed—Carrera Takes Guatemala—Murderof Salazar—Carrera Accepts Money to Leave the City—DictatorshipOffered Morazan by the Aristocrats and Refused—Carrera's SecondRebellion—The Republic in Peril—Morazan's Efforts to Save It—Nicaraguaand Honduras Forces Invade Salvador—Morazan DefeatsThem—His Retreat to San Salvador—He Embarks—Is RefusedHospitality in Costa Rica—Goes to South America—The Republic isDead—Salvador at the Mercy of Carrera | [127] |
| CHAPTER VIII. GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS. 1824-1840. | |
| State Government of Guatemala—Barrundia's Radicalism—His Overthrow—Vice-jefeFlores Assassinated in Quezaltenango—Downfall ofthe Liberals in Guatemala—Aristocratic Leaders Exiled—Jefe Molina—HisDifferences, Impeachment, and Acquittals—Rivera Cabezas'Reforms—Earthquakes—Galvez' Rule and its Benefits—PartyOpposition to Him—Indian Outbreaks—Carrera Captures Guatemala—GalvezResigns—Subsequent Rule of the Aristocrats—Guatemalaagain Independent—Honduras' State Government—Jefe DionisioHerrera—Early Dissensions—Comayagua Assaulted by Rebels—Morazanin the Field—Honduras Secedes from the Central AmericanConfederation—Federalism Rooted out of her Territory | [145] |
| CHAPTER IX. SALVADOR, NICARAGUA, AND COSTA RICA. 1824-1840. | |
| Salvador State Government—Liberals Overthrown—Secession from theUnion—San Salvador as the Federal Seat of Government—GuatemalaImposes her Will—Jefe Cañas and Comandante Malespin—Nicaragua'sEarly Troubles—Siege and Bombardment of Leon—Organizationof State Government—Dissensions and Warfare—Eruption ofCosigüina—Secession from the Confederation—Costa Rica as a ConfederatedState—Juan Mora's Administration—Towns' BickeringsSettled—Braulio Carrillo's Rule—Final Secession from the CentralAmerican Republic—Prosperity of the State | [165] |
| CHAPTER X. DISSOLUTION OF THE UNION. 1839-1852. | |
| Interstate Dissensions—Pacto de Chinandega—Confederacion CentroAmericana—Supremo Delegado Chamorro—Hostility of Guatemalaand British Officials—Arce Invades Salvador—War of the Confederacyagainst Guatemala—Helplessness of Chamorro—End of thePacto de Chinandega—Condition of the States—Ferrera's Bad Faith—Salvadorand Honduras against Nicaragua—Horrors of Leon—Vice-presidentJoaquin E. Guzman—Honduras and Salvador at War—Guardiola'sVandalism—Malespin Overthrown—Renewed Effortsto Confederate—Guatemala an Independent Republic—Costa RicaFollows—Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras a Confederacy—ItsShort Life—Further Unsuccessful Attempts | [186] |
| CHAPTER XI. REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA. 1841-1856. | |
| Rule of Carrillo Continued—Plots for its Overthrow—Invasion of Morazan—Changeof Government—Morazan's Policy—Opposition—Revolts—Morazan'sDefeat and Death—Satisfaction of the Oligarchs—Measuresof the Victors—New Constitution—Subsequent Amendments—Sedition—Castro'sAdministration—Costa Rica Declared aRepublic—Recognition by Spain—Relations with Other Powers—BoundaryQuestions with Nicaragua and Colombia—President JuanRafael Mora—His Repressive Measures | [215] |
| CHAPTER XII. REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA. 1838-1855. | |
| State Government—Director Buitrago's Conservatism—British Aggression—DirectorSandoval's Rule—Internal Troubles—Guerrero's Administration—TheMosquito Kingdom—Its Origin and History—Bubbles—BritishPretensions—Seizure of San Juan del Norte—DiplomaticComplications—Clayton-Bulwer Treaty—Nicaragua Recoversher Own—Relations with Foreign Powers—An American War ShipBombards San Juan del Norte—Pineda's Government—Establishmentof the Republic—Party Dissensions—Legitimists versus Democrats—Chamorroand Castellon—Civil War—Death of Chamorro—EstradaSucceeds Him | [238] |
| CHAPTER XIII. REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA. 1840-1865. | |
| President Rivera Paz—Carrera's Course—Pretended Sedition—Dissolutionof the Assembly—A Consejo Constituyente Created—CarreraBecomes President—Attempt against his Life—Revolt of Monterrosa—Carrera'sDespotism—The Republic Established—Relationswith Other Powers—Revolution of the Mountain—Constituent AssemblyConvened—Carrera's Forced Resignation and Exile—LiberalsTriumphant—Their Squabbles and Disintegration—The ModeradoParty—Revolution of Los Altos—Intrigues of the Serviles—Presidenciesof Martinez and Escobar—Causes of their Resignations—Paredes—Recallof Carrera—Deeds of Vengeance—Carrera againPresident—Partial Restoration of Peace | [264] |
| CHAPTER XIV. REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR. 1839-1865. | |
| Malespin's Acts—Lindo's Coup d'Etat and Deposal—Jefe Guzman—Revoltat Santa Ana—President Aguilar—The Bishop Expelled—Viteri'sAlliance with Malespin and Honduran Oligarchs—PresidentVasconcelos—British Hostilities—Salvador's Relations with ForeignPowers—San Martin's Administration—Destruction of San Salvador—PresidentCampo—Campaign against Walker in Nicaragua—Establishmentof the Republic—Santin's Overthrow—Presidency of GerardoBarrios—War of Salvador and Honduras against Guatemalaand Nicaragua—The Latter Victorious—Barrios' Flight—Restorationof Peace—Dueñas as President—Barrios' Subsequent Return—HisCapture and Surrender by Nicaragua—His Execution in San Salvador | [285] |
| CHAPTER XV. REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS. 1840-1865. | |
| President Ferrera—Revolutionary Movements—Political Executions—Presidencyof Juan Lindo—New Constitution—Lindo Overthrown—Belize—Honduras'Troubles with Great Britain—British Occupationof Tiger Island—Bombardment of Omoa—Bay Islands—PresidentCabañas—War with Guatemala—Guardiola's Assassination—ProvisionalRules of Castellanos and Montes—Alliance with Barrios—UnsuccessfulWar with Guatemala and Nicaragua—Montes Deposed—Establishmentof the Republic—José M. Medina Chosen President—Amendmentof the Constitution | [309] |
| CHAPTER XVI. WALKER'S CAMPAIGN IN NICARAGUA. 1855-1856. | |
| Kinney's Expedition—William Walker Joins the Democrats—Failure ofhis Expedition to Rivas—Cholera Decimates the Legitimists at Managua—Deathof Muñoz—Walker's Victories at La Vírgen and Granada—Executionof Minister Mayorga—Walker's Convention withCorral—Provisional Government Organized—President PatricioRivas—Commander of the Forces, Walker—Minister of War CorralPut to Death for Treason—Recognition by Salvador and Honduras—Seizureof the Transit Company's Steamers—Costa Ricans on theWar-path—Havoc of Cholera | [327] |
| CHAPTER XVII. END OF FILIBUSTERING IN CENTRAL AMERICA. 1856-1867. | |
| Recognition of President Rivas by the United States—Walker's HostileAttitude—Flight of Rivas—Walker Makes Himself President—Allianceagainst Him—Death of Estrada—The Legitimists Accept Rivas—CostaRicans and Nicaraguans in Rivas—Destruction of Granada—Itis Occupied by Allied Forces—Walker Reoccupies Rivas—WhereHe is Besieged—Successes of the Costa Ricans—Failure of Lockridge'sExpedition—Surrender of Walker—War of Nicaragua andCosta Rica—Commodore Paulding and Walker's Second Attempt—Walker'sInvasion of Honduras, Capture, and Execution—GovernmentReorganized—President Martinez' Administrations | [347] |
| CHAPTER XVIII. POLITICAL EVENTS IN COSTA RICA. 1856-1886. | |
| Rewards to Walker's Conquerors—Reëlection of Mora—His Downfall andExile—His Return, Capture, and Execution—Montealegre's Administration—Violenceof Parties—Compromise on Jesus Jimenez—HisPeaceful Rule—President José M. Castro—Charges against Him—HisOverthrow—Several New Constitutions—Jimenez again President—HisArbitrary Acts—How He was Deposed—President Carranza—OtherTemporary Rulers—President Guardia's Despotism—Failureof his Warlike Plans—His Death—Administration of PrósperoFernandez—Preparations to Defend Independence—His SuddenDeath—Bernardo Soto's Peaceful Rule | [371] |
| CHAPTER XIX. DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS IN SALVADOR. 1865-1885. | |
| Rule of President Dueñas—His Conservatism—Quarrel with Honduras—TheLatter Allied with Salvadoran Liberals—Battle of Santa Ana—DueñasDeposed—His Impeachment, Release, and Temporary Exile—SantiagoGonzalez Provisional President—Gonzalez Elected ChiefMagistrate—Guatemala and Salvador at War with Honduras—Murderof Vice-president Mendez—Earthquakes—President Valle—Troublewith Guatemala—Exeunt Valle and Gonzalez—Zaldívar'sLong Rule—Constitutional Changes—Alliance with Nicaragua andCosta Rica—Resistance to Barrios' Plan of Conquest—Salvador Victorious—RestoredPeace—Zaldívar Eliminated—Revolution—F.Menendez Made President | [392] |
| CHAPTER XX. DEMOCRACY RESTORED IN GUATEMALA. 1865-1873. | |
| President Cerna's Rule—Partial Revolts—Liberals in the Assembly—Cerna'sReëlection—Riots in the Capital—Zavala's Course—Cruz'Rebellion, Defeat, and Death—Arrests of Liberals—Moderation ofthe Government—Revolution of García Granados and Barrios—Planof Patzicia—Cerna Defeated and Overthrown—Granados asPresidente Provisorio—Seditious Movements Quelled—Abolition ofPriestly Privileges—Prelates, Jesuits, and Capuchins Expelled—Warwith Honduras—Barrios as Substitute President—His Severity—Elections—BarriosChosen Constitutional President | [413] |
| CHAPTER XXI. RENEWED EFFORTS FOR CENTRAL AMERICAN UNITY. 1873-1885. | |
| President Barrios of Guatemala—End of Reactionary War—GuatemalanProgress—War with Salvador and Honduras—Barrios' Successesand Generosity to the Vanquished—Constitutional Régime in Guatemala—Barrios'Reëlections—His Visit to the United States—PeacefulEffort to Unite Central America—Resort to Arms—Alliance ofGuatemala and Honduras—Barrios Attacks Salvador—His Defeatand Death—His Plan Abandoned—M. L. Barillas, Provisional Presidentof Guatemala—Restoration of Peace | [431] |
| CHAPTER XXII. HONDURAS AFFAIRS. 1865-1886. | |
| National Flag and Escutcheon—Order of Santa Rosa—Medina's LongRule—His Differences with Dueñas, and Triumph—War with Salvadorand Guatemala—Medina Defeated and Overthrown—Céleo AriasSucceeds Him—His Liberal Policy—He is Beset by the Conservatives—HisFormer Supporters Depose Him—Ponciano Leiva BecomesPresident—His Course Displeases Barrios, Who Sets Medina againstHim—He is Forced to Resign—Marco Aurelio Soto Made Presidentby Barrios—Attempted Revolt of Ex-president Medina—His Trialand Execution—Soto's Administration—He Goes Abroad—His Quarrelwith Barrios, and Resignation—President Bogran—FilibusteringSchemes | [453] |
| CHAPTER XXIII. POLITICAL AFFAIRS IN NICARAGUA. 1867-1885. | |
| President Fernando Guzman—Insurrection—Misconduct of Priests—Defeatsof the Insurgents—Foreign Mediation—Generosity of theGovernment—President Vicente Quadra—Inception of the Jesuits—Aimsof Parties—Internal and Foreign Complications—Costa Rica'sHostility and Tinoco's Invasion—Presidents Chamorro and Zavala—MorePolitical Troubles—Jesuits the Promoters—Their Expulsion—PeaceRestored—Progress of the Country—President Adan Cárdenas—Resistanceto President Barrios' Plan of Forced Reconstruction | [470] |
| CHAPTER XXIV. INDEPENDENCE OF THE ISTHMUS. 1801-1822. | |
| Administration under Spain—Influence of Events in Europe and SpanishAmerica on the Isthmus—Hostilities in Nueva Granada—ConstitutionalGovernment—General Hore's Measures to Hold the Isthmusfor Spain—MacGregor's Insurgent Expedition at Portobello—Reëstablishmentof the Constitution—Captain-general Murgeon's Rule—TheIsthmus is Declared Independent—Its Incorporation withColombia—José Fábrega in Temporary Command—José María CarreñoAppointed Intendente and Comandante General—Abolition ofAfrican Slavery | [488] |
| CHAPTER XXV. DIVERS PHASES OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. 1819-1863. | |
| Panamá Congress—Provincial Organizations—Alzuru's Rebellion andExecution—Secession from Colombia and Reincorporation—Differenceswith Foreign Governments—Crime Rampant—SummaryTreatment of Criminals—Riots and Massacre of Foreign Passengers—Attemptsto Rob Treasure Trains—Neutrality Treaties—Establishmentof Federal System—Panamá as a State—Revolutionary EraBegins—A Succession of Governors—Seditious Character of theNegro Population—Revolution against Governor Guardia and hisDeath—Another Political Organization—Estado Soberano de Panamá—LiberalParty in Full Control—Stringent Measures | [510] |
| CHAPTER XXVI. FURTHER WARS AND REVOLUTIONS. 1863-1885. | |
| Presidents Goitia, Santa Coloma, and Calancha—Undue Interference ofFederal Officials—Colunje's Administration—President Olarte's Energy—Enmityof the Arrabal's Negroes—Short and Disturbed Rulesof Diaz and Ponce—President Correoso—Negro Element in theAscendent—Conservatives Rebel, and are Discomfited—Armed Peacefor a Time—Feverish Rules of Neira, Miró, Aizpuru, Correoso, andCasorla—Cervera's Long Tenure—Temporary Rule of Vives Leon—PresidentSantodomingo Vila—Obtains Leave of Absence—Is Succeededby Pablo Arosemena—Aizpuru's Revolution—ArosemenaFlees and Resigns—Outrages at Colon—American Forces ProtectPanamá—Collapse of the Revolution—Aizpuru and Correoso Imprisoned—ChiefCauses of Disturbances on the Isthmus | [532] |
| CHAPTER XXVII. CENTRAL AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS. 1886. | |
| Extent of the Country—Climate—Mountains and Volcanoes—Earthquakes—Riversand Lakes—Costa Rica's Area, Possessions, andPolitical Division and Government—Her Chief Cities—Nicaragua,her Territory, Towns, and Municipal Administration—Honduras'Extent, Islands, Cities, and Local Government—Salvador, her Position,Area, Towns, and Civil Rule—Guatemala's Extent and Possessions—HerCities and Towns—Internal Administration—Isthmus ofPanamá—Area, Bays, Rivers, and Islands—Department and DistrictRule—The Capital and Other Towns—Population—Character andCustoms—Education—Epidemics and Other Calamities | [560] |
| CHAPTER XXVIII. THE PEOPLE OF COSTA RICA, NICARAGUA, AND SALVADOR. 1800-1887. | |
| Central American Population—Its Divisions—General Characteristics andOccupations—Land Grants—Efforts at Colonization—Failure of ForeignSchemes—Rejection of American Negroes—Character of theCosta Rican People—Dwellings—Dress—Food—Amusements—NicaraguanMen and Women—Their Domestic Life—How They AmuseThemselves—People of Salvador—Their Character and Mode ofLiving | [587] |
| CHAPTER XXIX. THE PEOPLE OF HONDURAS AND GUATEMALA. 1800-1887. | |
| Amalgamation in Honduras—Possible War of Races—Xicaques and Payas—Zambosor Mosquitos—Pure and Black Caribs—DistinguishingTraits—Ladinos—Their Mode of Life—Guatemala and her People—DifferentClasses—Their Vocations—Improved Condition of theLower Classes—Mestizos—Pure Indians—Lacandones—White andUpper Class—Manners and Customs—Prevailing Diseases—Epidemics—Provisionfor the Indigent | [608] |
| CHAPTER XXX. INTELLECTUAL ADVANCEMENT. 1800-1887. | |
| Public Education—Early Efforts at Development—Costa Rica's Measures—SmallSuccess—Education in Nicaragua—Schools and Colleges—NicaraguanWriters—Progress in Salvador and Honduras—BrilliantResults in Guatemala—Polytechnic School—Schools of Science, Arts,and Trades—Institute for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind—University—PublicWriters—Absence of Public Libraries—Church History inCentral America and Panamá—Creation of Dioceses of Salvador andCosta Rica—Immorality of Priests—Their Struggles for Supremacy—Effortsto Break their Power—Banishments of Prelates—Expulsionof Jesuits—Suppression of Monastic Orders—Separation of Churchand State—Religious Freedom | [621] |
| CHAPTER XXXI. JUDICIAL AND MILITARY. 1887. | |
| Judicial System of Guatemala—Jury Trials in the Several States—Courtsof Honduras—Absence of Codes in the Republic—Dilatory Justice—Impunityof Crime in Honduras and Nicaragua—Salvador's Judiciary—DilatoryProcedure—Codification of Laws in Nicaragua—CostaRican Administration—Improved Codes—Panamá Courts—GoodCodes—Punishments for Crime in the Six States—Jails and Penitentiaries—MilitaryService—Available Force of Each State—HowOrganized—Naval—Expenditures—Military Schools—Improvements | [638] |
| CHAPTER XXXII. INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS. 1800-1887. | |
| Early Agriculture—Protection of the Industry—Great Progress Attained—CommunalLands—Agricultural Wealth—Decay of Cochineal—Developmentof Other Staples—Indigo, Coffee, Sugar, Cacao, andTobacco—Food and Other Products—Precious Woods and MedicinalPlants—Live-stock—Value of Annual Production in Each State—NaturalProducts of Panamá—Neglect of Agriculture—MineralWealth—Yield of Precious Metals—Mining in Honduras, Salvador,and Nicaragua—Deposits of Guatemala and Costa Rica—Mints—FormerYield of Panamá—Mining Neglected on the Isthmus—Incipiencyof Manufactures—Products for Domestic Use | [650] |
| CHAPTER XXXIII. COMMERCE AND FINANCE. 1801-1887. | |
| Early State of Trade—Continued Stagnation after Independence—Steamon the Coasts—Its Beneficial Effects—Variety of Staples—Ports ofEntry and Tariffs—Imports and Exports—Fairs—Accessory TransitCompany—Internal Navigation—Highways—Money—Banking—PostalService—Panamá Railway Traffic—Local Trade of the Isthmus—PearlFishery—Colonial Revenue in Finances of the Federation—Sourcesof Revenue of Each State—Their Receipts andExpenditures—Foreign and Internal Debts | [663] |
| CHAPTER XXXIV. INTEROCEANIC COMMUNICATION. 1801-1887. | |
| Ancient Ideas on the North-west Passage—From Peru to La Plata—CapeHorn Discovered—Arctic Regions—McClure's SuccessfulVoyage—Crozier's Discovery—Franklin's Attempts—Finding byNordenskiöld of the North-east Passage—Projects to Unite the Atlanticand Pacific Oceans across the Isthmuses—Plans about Tehuantepec—Explorationsfor a Ship-canal Route in Nicaragua, Panamá,and Darien—The Nicaragua Accessory Transit Company—Constructionof the Panamá Railway, and its Great Benefits—Further Effortsfor a Canal—Organization of a French Company—A Ship-canal underConstruction across the Isthmus of Panamá—Difficulties and Expectations—CentralAmerican Railroads and Telegraphs—SubmarineCables | [688] |
HISTORY
OF
CENTRAL AMERICA.
CHAPTER I.
LAST DAYS OF SPANISH RULE.
1801-1818.
Popular Feeling in Central America—Effect of Events in Spain—Recognition of American Equality—Representation in the Spanish Córtes—Delusive Reforms—End of Saravia's Rule—President José Bustamante—His Despotic Course—Demands in the Córtes—Constitutional Guarantees—Official Hostility—Campaign in Oajaca—Revolutionary Movements in Salvador—War in Nicaragua—Conspiracy in Guatemala—Treatment of the Insurgents—Disrespect to the Diputacion—The Constitution Revoked—Royal Decrees.
The opening century was pregnant with important events both in Europe and America. By 1808 affairs in Spain culminated in the French emperor's detention of the king and other members of the royal family at Bayonne, where he forced them finally to resign in his favor their rights to the Spanish crown. The circle surrounding the captain-general, audiencia, and archbishop of Guatemala was made up, not only of European Spaniards, but of Guatemalans belonging to the so-called noble families. Popular displeasure was manifested both against the Spaniards and against the provincial aristocracy.[I-1] The oligarchy was hated throughout the province of Guatemala proper, and still more in the other provinces of the presidency.
However, when the news of Napoleon's usurpation reached America, it caused a strong revulsion of feeling in Central America, as well as elsewhere in the Spanish dominions, even among the large class which had hitherto secretly fostered a warm desire for independent national existence. Creoles of pure Spanish descent, though yearning to be free from the old thraldom, could not bring themselves to discard the country which gave them blood, religion, and civilization. As to the educated Indians, who were also among the wishers for independence, like all of their race, they looked up to the ruling power with reverence and fear. Thus arose a struggle between the old veneration and the love of freedom; a struggle which was to last in Central America a few years longer, though the people were becoming more and more impatient, while leaning to the side of independent nationality. Circumstances seemed to demand that the old connection should not be ruptured till 1821, when decisive results in New Spain brought on the final crisis here. When the news of Napoleon's acts of violence and usurpations reached Guatemala, popular loyalty was aroused, and showed itself in various ways. Manifestations by the authorities, expressive of fealty to the mother country and the royal family, met with an apparently hearty response from the people.
Advices came on the 30th of June, 1808, of the occurrences at Aranjuez of March 19th.[I-2] July passed amid much anxiety about affairs in Spain, and the public mind became depressed by unfavorable news received on the 13th of August. Next day, at a meeting of the authorities,[I-3] the state of affairs was anxiously discussed. The mariscal de campo, Antonio Gonzalez Mollinedo y Saravia, had succeeded Dolmas on the 28th of July, 1801, in the offices of governor, captain-general, and president of the audiencia. He had seen forty years of service in the royal armies,[I-4] and had with him his wife, Micaela Colarte, and offspring.[I-5]