Spain was a born conqueror among nations, but what she conquered she had learned neither the sympathy nor adaptability to govern. Thus the empire won by her courage and endurance was destined to slip from her grasp.

Supplementary Dates. For Chronological Summary, see pp. [368–73].

Saracen rule in Spain 711–1031
The Cid(died) 1099
James I of Aragon 1213–76
Pedro III of Aragon 1276–85
Alfonso X of Castile 1252–84
Pedro I of Castile 1350–69
John II of Castile 1407–54
Henry IV of Castile 1454–74
Isabel I of Castile 1474–1504
Ferdinand II of Aragon 1479–1516

XX
CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES

Rudolf I

The accession of Rudolf of Habsburg[38] as King of the Romans in 1273 is a turning-point in the history of mediaeval Germany. Hitherto private or imperial ambitions had prevented even well-intentioned emperors from exerting their full strength against anarchy at home; while a few like Frederick II had deliberately ignored German interests. The result had been a steady process of disintegration, perpetuating racial and class feuds; but now at last the tradition was broken and an Emperor chosen who was willing to forgo the glory of dominating Rome and Lombardy in order to build up a nation north of the Alps.

The election itself was somewhat of a surprise; for Rudolf belonged to an obscure and far from wealthy family, owning territory in Alsace and amongst the Swiss mountains. What is interesting to the modern world is that the man who did most to influence the Electors in their choice, and thus helped to plant a Habsburg with his feet on the ladder of greatness, was a Hohenzollern.

Count Rudolf at the time of his election was a middle-aged man of considerable military experience, kindly, simple, and resolute. He had won the affection of his own vassals by helping them in their struggles against the unjust demands of local tyrants, such as feudal bishops or the barons who built castles amongst the crags and sent out armed retainers to waylay merchants and travellers. One tale records how, with an apparently small force, he advanced boldly against a robber fastness, thus encouraging the garrison to issue out and attack him. When the robbers approached, however, they found to their horror that each of their mounted opponents had another armed man seated behind him, and so, hopelessly outnumbered as well as outwitted, they were forced to surrender or fly.