Song (Vol. 25, p. 400), the oldest of art forms, and almost the last to be rescued from the too narrow formalism of which the classical Aria (Vol. 2, p. 489) is the beautiful example, is so much the most generally popular that the article on it in the Britannica will probably be more widely read than any other on musical subjects. Written by W. A. J. Ford, a scholarly musician and teacher of singing at the Royal College of Music (London), it provides a brilliant survey of the evolution of the song from its earliest beginnings. In connection with it the reader will find much to interest him in the biographical notices of two famous troubadours of the 13th and 14th centuries, Adam de la Hale (Vol. 1, p. 171) and Machaut, G. De (Vol. 17, p. 233); of Monteverde (Vol. 18, p. 778), the pioneer of the monodist revolt at the end of the 16th century, of Scarlatti, Alessandro (Vol. 24, p. 302), 17th century, who perfected the aria form, of Purcell, Henry (Vol. 22, p. 658), the great English composer of the 17th century, of Johann Sebastian Bach (Vol. 3, p. 126) 18th century, of Schubert (Vol. 24, p. 380), the creator of the modern song, of Schumann (Vol. 24, p. 384) who brought a yet greater intimacy into the form, of Hugo Wolf (Vol. 28, p. 771), the most clairvoyant of song writers, of Sir Hubert Parry (Vol. 20, p. 865), and Sir Charles Villiers Stanford (Vol. 25, p. 773), who have respectively done the best modern work in the English and Irish tradition, and of the American MacDowell (Vol. 17, p. 214). Reference should also be made to the articles Melody (Vol. 18, p. 96), Accompaniment (Vol. 1, p. 122), Rhythm (Vol. 23, p. 277). Suggestive also are the articles Ballads (Vol. 3, p. 264), Poetry (Vol. 21, p. 889). On the technique of singing the article Voice (Vol. 28, p. 172) by Dr. J. G. McKendrick, will be found very helpful, especially the section on the Physiology of Voice Production.

(4) MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

One branch of the subject yet remains, that of musical instruments. Here the editor of the Britannica had the advantage of the assistance of Miss Kathleen Schlesinger (author of The Instruments of the Orchestra, and the greatest authority on the subject), who contributed practically all of the articles in the book on musical instruments. A list of them is given below, classified under their most convenient groupings. From these articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica the reader will get a full account of every known musical instrument whether modern or ancient, with its compass, and scale, and of its connection with other instruments of the same class; so that the evolution of every type is clearly brought out. As a preliminary to a general study of the subject, the articles Orchestra (Vol. 20, p. 168), and Instrumentation (Vol. 14, p. 651) may conveniently be read. In the former Miss Schlesinger gives a summary of the development of the various classes of instruments and of their concerted use. In the article Instrumentation, on the other hand, Donald Tovey illustrates the principles which govern their use. This article closes with an interesting survey of the orchestral schemes at different periods in the history of the art. The following classified list of separate articles on musical instruments in the Britannica, shows how very completely this work covers the field:

Stringed Instruments (Vol. 25, p. 1038).

Strings Plucked by Fingers or Plectrum: Asor; Balalaika; Banjo; Barbiton; Chelys; Cithara; Citole; Cittern; Epigonion; Guitar; Harp; Harp-Lute; Kinnor; Kissar; Lute; Lyre; Mandoline; Nanga; Pandura; Psaltery; Rebab; Rotta; Sambuca; Theorbo; Trigonon; Zither. Strings Set in Vibration by Friction of the Bow: Crowd; Double Bass; Fiddle; Geige; Guitar-Fiddle; Gusla; Nail Violin; Philomel; Ravanastron; Rebab; Rebec; Tromba Marina; Vielle; Viol; Viola; Violin; Violoncello. Strings Struck by Hammers or Tangents: Clavecin; Clavicembalo; Clavichord; Clavicytherium; Dulcimer; Harmonichord; Harpsichord; Pianoforte; Spinet; Virginal. Strings Set in Vibration by Friction of a Wheel: Hurdy-Gurdy; Organistrum. Strings Set in Vibration by the Wind: Aeolian Harp. Appliances: Bow; Monochord; Mute; Mouthpiece; Keyboard; Sordino.

Wind Instruments (mouth blown) (Vol. 28, p. 709.)

Wood Wind.

The Pipe Class: Eunuch Flute; Fife; Flageolet; Flute; Nay; Piccolo; Pipe and Tabor; Recorder; Syrinx. Single Reed Class (cylindrical bore): Reed Instruments; Arghoul; Aulos; Bass Clarinet; Basset Horn; Batyphone; Clarinet; Pedal Clarinet. Double Reed Class (conical bore): Reed Instruments; Aulos; Bassoon; Bombard; Contrafagotto; Cor Anglais; Oboe; Pommer; Shawm; Clarina; Holztrompete; Cromorne; Rackett; Saxophone; Sordino; Tibia. To reed instruments also belong the Bagpipe Class: Askaules; Bagpipe; Biniou; Chorus; Drone; Platerspiel; Symphonia.

Brass Wind.

Bombardon; Buccina; Bugle; Cornet; Euphonium; Helicon; Horn; Lituus; Ophicleide; Sackbut; Saxhorn; Serpent; Trombone; Trumpet; Tuba; to which may be added, though not of brass or metal: Alpenhorn; Oliphant; Shofar; see also Mouthpiece; Mute; Valves.