Economic effects of the world war upon women and children in Great Britain

by Irene Osgood Andrews; Margaret A. Hobbs

• Accounting, women employed in, [47].
• Addison, Christopher, [140], [152].
• Agriculture: employment of women in, [3], [14], [29], [33], [36],
• [40], [45], [47], [73];
• wages paid, [5], [34], [72], [117];
• Board of, [71], [73];
• efforts to substitute women’s labor in, [63], [70-74];
• Women’s Farm and Garden Union, [73];
• Women’s National Land Service Corps, [73];
• Women’s Land Army, [74];
• establishment of training courses in, [85];
• employment of children in, [171].
• Adjustments, postwar, [215].
• Aeroplanes, employment of women on work on, [35].
• Airedale of Gledhow, Lord, [121].
• Amalgamated Society of Engineers, [51-53], [56], [90], [100], [222].
• Ammunition industry, employment of women in, [30].
• See also Munitions industry.
• Anderson, Miss, [40].
• Armature winding, employment of women in, [42].
• Arsenals, employment of women at, [37], [60].
• Aves, Ernest, [104].
• Baillie, G. H., [60].
• Bakers, employment of women as, [38], [42], [61].
• Banks, employment of women in, [33], [39-40], [42], [45].
• Bleaching, employment of women in, [61].
• Bill posters, employment of women as, [42].
• Billeting of Civilians Bill, [165].
• Blast furnaces, employment of women in, [42].
• Boot and shoe trade, employment of women in, [30], [61].
• Boys, employment of. See Children, employment of.
• Boys’ Welfare Association, [184].
• Brewing, employment of women in, [37].
• Brick making, employment of women in, [38], [67].
• British Association for Advancement of Science, [28], [32], [34], [120].
• Brush making, employment of women in, [61].
• Building trades, employment of women in, [38].
• Butchers, employment of women as, [38].
• Cement work, employment of women in, [38].
• Cemetery laborers, employment of women as, [42].
• Central Committee for Prevention and Relief of Distress, [21].
• Central Committee on Women’s Employment, [23].
• Central Labor Supply Committee, [56], [101], [106].
• Chauffeurs, employment of women as, [42].
• Chemicals industry, employment of women in, [34], [37], [42].
• Children: Fisher Education Law, [iv], [12], [226];
• employment of, on war work, [2], [4], [17];
• legislation regulating employment of, [12], [18-19];
• compulsory schooling, [18];
• effects of war on employment of, [167-190];
• demand for labor of, [167];
• relaxation of child labor and compulsory education laws, [170];
• numbers employed, [168], [170];
• illegal employment of, [174];
• supervision of, [176];
• wages of, [177];
• hours of, [178];
• Boys’ Welfare Association, [184];
• effects of work on, [185];
• postwar employment of, [224].
• China making, employment of women in, [38], [61].
• Cinema operators, employment of women as, [42].
• Civil service. See Government work.
• Civil War Workers Committee, [206].
• Clerical and Commercial Employments Committee, [69-70].
• Clerical work: employment of women in, [33];
• training courses in, [85].
• Clothing industry, employment of women in, [30], [35], [42], [61], [67].
• Clyde strike, [51].
• Cole, G. D. H., [114].
• College women in agricultural work, [73].
• Comfort, legislation providing for, [7].
• See also Safety, health and comfort.
• Commercial occupations, employment of women in, [29], [39], [45-46].
• Competition in securing workers, efforts to avoid, [80].
• Conference of Working Class Associations, [218].
• Construction work, employment of women in, [42].
• Control of workers: controlled establishments, [55];
• under Munitions Acts, [92];
• prohibition against strikes, [92];
• leaving certificates, [93].
• Copper works, employment of women in, [42].
• Core makers, employment of women as, [42].
• Cork cutters: employment of women as, [42].
• Corn Production Act, [117].
• Cost of living, effect of, on wages, [112].
• Cotton trade, dilution in, [61], [67].
• Crane drivers, employment of women as, [42].
• Cranes, electric, employment of women on, [38].
• Currying, employment of women in, [67].
• Delinquency, juvenile, [9], [188].
• Dilution, [50-74];
• made possible by Munitions Act, [6], [51];
• “Treasury Agreement” concerning, [52];
• attitude of trade unions toward, [90];
• complete, [122];
• group, [123];
• dilution bulletins, [153];
• children used in, [175];
• return of soldiers to former positions, [221];
• postwar results of, [215];
• table showing processes on which women were employed, [232];
• extent of, in December, 1915, and April, 1916, [235];
• numbers substituted, April, 1916-April, 1918, [236];
• table of direct substitution, January and April, 1918, [238];
• table showing average weekly earnings, [239];
• list of trades in which women have been substituted
• but which appear unsuitable in normal times, [248].
• See also Substitution.
• Diseases, occupational: munitions work, [154].
• Distress, Central Committee for Prevention and Relief of, [21].
• Distribution of young persons between different employments
• in July, 1914, October, 1917, and January, 1918, [245].
• Docks, employment of women at, [37].
• Domestic service: employment of women in, [3], [14], [29], [36], [38], [42];
• postwar problems of, [213];
• wages, [213].
• Donation system for unemployed after the war, [10], [208], [211].
• Dressmaking trade: employment of women in, [14], [36], [38];
• wages, [118].
• Dyeing industry, employment of women in, [61].
• Earthenware making, employment of women in, [38], [61].
• Educational work: employment of women in, [29], [47];
• National Federation of Women Teachers, [88].
• See also Schooling.
• Effects of war work:
• signs of injury to health not generally apparent, [8];
• on children, [9], [167], [190];
• on home life, [9], [199];
• increase in juvenile delinquency, [9], [188];
• on women, [191-203];
• development of personality, [9], [200].
• Efficiency, relative, of men and women workers, [120].
• Efforts, organized, to recruit women’s labor, [50].
• Electric motor building, employment of women in, [38].
• Electric welding, employment of women in, [42].
• Engine cleaners, employment of women as, [42].
• Engineering industry: employment of women in, [30];
• restrictions against employment of women, [51];
• dilution introduced in, [56-61];
• Committee on Production in Engineering, [51].
• Equal pay question, [119];
• postwar problems regarding, [215].
• Extension of employment of women, [28];
• tables showing, [29], [236];
• voluntary registration, [65].
• Fabian Society, [21].
• Fabian Women’s Group, [214].
• Factory work, employment of women in, [29].
• Farm and Garden Union, Women’s, [73].
• Farm work. See Agriculture.
• Federation of Women Workers, [96].
• Fisher, Herbert, [2], [169-170].
• Fisher Education Act, [iv], [12], [226].
• Flour making, [67].
• Food industry, employment of women in, [35], [38].
• Food Production, Department of, [73].
• Forge works, employment of women in, [42].
• Foundry work, employment of women in, [42].
• Furniture manufacturing, employment of women in, [38].
• Gardeners, employment of women as, [42].
• Garrod, H. W., [161].
• Gas meter inspectors, employment of women as, [42].
• Gas works, employment of women in, [40].
• Gauging tools, employment of women in, [38].
• General Federation of Trades Unions, [20].
• Girls, employment of. See Children, employment of.
• Glass decorating, employment of women in, [61].
• Glass making, employment of women in, [38], [42].
• Government work, employment of women in, [14], [29], [39-40], [47-48].
• Grain milling, employment of women in, [37].
• Health Insurance Medical Research Committee, [198].
• Health of women war workers, [191];
• legislation protecting, [7], [16], [19].
• See also Safety, health and comfort.
• Health of Munition Workers Committee, [8], [82], [135], [146-147],
• [178], [182-183], [191].
• Hat making, employment of women in, [61].
• Hay balers, employment of women as, [42].
• Home life, effects of war work on, [199].
• Hosiery industry, employment of women in, [30], [61].
• Hotels, employment of women in, [29], [45].
• Hours: legislation concerning, [7], [16];
• for children, [19], [178];
• in workrooms established to relieve unemployment, [26];
• chapter on, [126-145];
• prewar legislation regarding, [126];
• demand for overtime, [126];
• in munitions industry, [127];
• working hours in 1915, [129];
• establishment of shifts, [130];
• complaints against overtime, [131-134];
• report on effects of overtime, [134-135];
• control of, by Ministry of Munitions, [139];
• recommendations concerning, of Committee
• on Women’s employment, [145];
• improvement in working conditions necessitated by, [146];
• increase in accidents attributed to long, [193];
• modification of laws concerning, [241].
• Housing conditions: establishment of hostels, [163];
• Billeting of Civilians Bill, [165].
• Howard Association of London, [9].
• Hutchins, B. L., [30].
• Illegal employment of children, [174].
• Improvement in working conditions, plans for, [39].
• Increase of women in industry, [2], [28].
• Industrial Courts Act, [217].
• Industry, employment of women in, [2], [28-29].
• Independent Labour Party, [21].
• Insurance agents, employment of women as, [42].
• Insurance offices, employment of women in, [33].
• Interdepartmental Hours of Labour Committee, [138].
• Interim Court of Arbitration, [217].
• Joint Committee of Industrial Women’s Organizations, [117].
• Juvenile employment: increase of delinquency due to, [9], [188];
• Committee on, [170], [177], [185].
• See also Children, employment of.
• Keeling, Frederic, [17].
• Kent, A. F. Stanley, [134].
• Kitchener, Lord, [28], [129].
• Labor: control of, by Munitions Acts, [7];
• removal of Trade Union restrictions, [6], [50], [55];
• child, [17];
• attitude at outbreak of war, [20];
• attitude of women’s labor organizations toward war, [20];
• protest against substitution, [31];
• agreements concerning dilution, [50-61];
• organized efforts to recruit women’s, [50];
• Women’s Labor Department, [73];
• number of orders modifying labor laws, [240];
• unions, see Trade Unions.
• Laboratory assistants, employment of women as, [42].
• Labor Advisory Committee, [54].
• Labor Regulation Department, [56].
• Labor Supply Department, [56].
• Labor Party, attitude of, at outbreak of war, [20].
• Lace making, [61].
• Lamplighters, employment of women as, [40].
• Land Army, [73-74], [85], [117].
• Laundry work, employment of women in, [38].
• Lawrence, Susan, [104].
• Leather industry, employment of women in, [30], [61-62], [67].
• Leaving certificates, [7], [93];
• injustice of, to workers, [94];
• opposition of trade unions to, [96];
• amendments regarding, [97].
• Leeson, Cecil, [9], [188].
• Legislation: Fisher Education Act, [iv], [12];
• Munitions Acts, [7], [50-51], [54-55], [92];
• restricting hours, [7];
• providing safety, health and comfort, [7];
• Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, [11], [216];
• prewar protection through, [16];
• prewar, concerning child labor, [17];
• providing compulsory schooling, [18];
• to avoid competition in securing workers, [80], [89], [126];
• Corn Production Act, [117];
• affecting hours, [139];
• Police, Factories, etc., Act of 1916, [147-150];
• Billeting of Civilians Bill, [165];
• relaxation of child labor and compulsory education laws, [170];
• Wages (Temporary Regulation) Bill, [217];
• Industrial Courts Act, [217];
• Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, 1919, [223];
• number of orders modifying labor laws, [240];
• modification of hour laws, [241-243].
• Lift attendants, employment of women as, [42].
• Lockouts prohibited by Munitions Act, [92].
• Lloyd George, David, [52], [54], [58-59], [101], [122].
• Lorry drivers, employment of women as, [42].
• Macarthur, Mary, [24], [89].
• Machinists, employment of women as, [42].
• Maharajah Sandia of Gwalior fund, Prince of, [166].
• Manufacturing industries, number of women engaged in
• before the war, [14].
• Married women, entry of, into industry, [76].
• Marine engineering, employment of women in, [42].
• Markham, Violet, [69].
• Messengers, employment of women as, [40].
• Metal trades, employment of women in, [34-35], [37], [42], [60].
• Military hospitals, employment of women in, [47].
• Military supplies, employment of women in manufacture of, [42].
• Millers, wages of, [118].
• Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, [11].
• Mining, employment of women in, [38].
• Mistresses League, [214].
• Moulders, employment of women as, [42].
• Munitions Acts: of July 2, 1915, [54];
• First Munitions Amendment Act, [7], [55],[139];
• abrogation of trade union restrictions through, [50-51];
• control of women workers under, [92].
• Munitions work: employment of women in, [30], [32], [35], [37], [42], [49];
• organized efforts to recruit women’s labor for, [50];
• efforts to increase production, [51-52];
• dilution, [56-61];
• training for, [84];
• governmental regulation of wages, [99];
• wages, [108-113];
• criticism of governmental fixing of wages, [110-113];
• hours, [127-128];
• diseases contracted in, [154];
• employment of children in, [168].
• Munitions tribunals, [7], [92], [97].
• National Advisory Committee, [56].
• National Federation of Women Teachers, [88].
• National Federation of Women Workers, [24], [87-89], [104-105].
• National Service Department, [68].
• National Union of Women Workers, [86].
• Night work, effects of, on women, [196].
• Nonessential industries, transfers of workers from, [75].
• Nonindustrial occupations, employment of women in, [33],[39].
• Nurses, demand for, [47].
• Optical instruments, women engaged in skilled work on, [38].
• Overtime work: demand for, [126];
• effect of, on women, [196];
• general order regulating, [243].
• Oxy-acetylene welders, employment of women as, [88].
• Painters, employment of women as, [42].
• Pankhurst, Mrs, [101].
• Pankhurst, Sylvia, [100].
• Paper industry, employment of women in, [35], [42].
• Parks, employment of women in, [40].
• Peace and reconstruction, problems of, [204-227].
• Phillips, Marion, [203].
• Pipe plasterers, employment of women as, [42].
• Police, Factories, etc.
• (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act of 1916, [147-150].
• Police women, employment of, [40].
• Postwar conditions: prevention of unemployment, [205];
• unemployment, [206];
• adjustments, [215];
• approved trades for women, [219];
• employment of children, [224];
• table showing postwar employment, [246].
• Postwomen, employment of, [33], [42].
• Power machine operating, training courses in, [85].
• Power stations, employment of women in, [40].
• Prewar conditions: number of women and children employed, [14].
• Prewar legislative protection, [16].
• Prince of Wales, The, [21].
• Printing industry, employment of women in, [35], [42], [61].
• Professions, number of women engaged in, [14], [45], [47].
• Quarrying, employment of women in, [38].
• Queen’s Work for Women Fund, [24].
• Railway service: employment of women in, [33], [39], [42], [46];
• agreements as to wages by unions, [115].
• Reconstruction, problems of, [204-207].
• Recruiting of new workers, [5].
• Red Cross hospitals, employment of women in, [47].
• Registration, voluntary, [63-64], [69].
• Relief, Central Committee for, [21].
• Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, 1919, [223].
• Rhondda, Lady, [222].
• Rowntree, B. Seebohm, [149], [156].
• Royal Ordnance Factories Trade Lads’ Association, [184].
• Safety, health and comfort: legislation providing for, [7], [16];
• organized efforts for, [147];
• Police, Factories, etc., Act of 1916, [147-150];
• occupational diseases contracted in munitions work, [154];
• welfare supervision, [155];
• attack on welfare movement, [158];
• improvements in conditions outside factory, [161];
• provisions for children, [182].
• Sawmill laborers, employment of women as, [42].
• Scavengers, employment of women as, [40].
• Schooling: Fisher Education Act, [iv], [12], [226];
• legislation providing compulsory, [18];
• relaxation of compulsory education laws, [170].
• Schools, training, establishment of, [84].
• Scientific instrument making, employment of women in, [61].
• Sewage farms, employment of women at, [40].
• Sheet metal working, employment of women in, [42].
• Shipbuilding, Committee on Production in Engineering and, [51].
• Ship engineering, employment of women in, [42].
• Shipyards, employment of women in, [38], [42].
• Shoe trade: employment of women in, [30];
• training courses in, [85].
• Shops Committee, [69].
• Smith, Constance, [186].
• Society of Incorporated Accountants, [47].
• Solderers, employment of women as, [42];
• voluntary registration, [63-64], [69].
• Sources of workers: transfers from non-essential industries, [75];
• transfers between districts, [79].
• Special Arbitration Tribunal, [104], [106], [109], [125].
• Spelter works, employment of women in, [42].
• Steel works, employment of women in, [38].
• Stokers, employment of women as, [38].
• Street cleaners, employment of women as, [40].
• Street traders, child, [4].
• Strikes prohibited by Munitions Act, [92].
• Substitution: in munitions work, [3];
• “equal pay” principle, [5];
• protest of labor unions against, [31];
• total number of women substituted for men workers, [40];
• objections to, [41];
• substitution officers, [68].
• See also Dilution.
• Sweated labor, government provision against, [101].
• Sweated trades, wage fixing in, [113].
• Tables: extension of employment of women
• during four years of war, [29];
• increase or decrease in number of women
• employed since July, 1914, [39];
• extension of employment of females in industry
• during four years of war, [44];
• number of women engaged on government orders
• in private concerns, April, 1917, and April, 1918, [45];
• increase in employment of women in commerce, July, 1914-April,
• 1918, and percentage of firms reporting a shortage
• of female labor in April, 1918, [46];
• number of females employed by steam railways, [46];
• number of females employed by government departments, [48];
• prewar occupations of [44], [137];
• females insured against unemployment in January, 1917, [79];
• number of Women Trade Union members, [88];
• see also “Appendices,” [229-249].
• Tailors’ pressers, employment of women as, [42].
• Teachers, women, [47];
• National Federation of, [88].
• Technical schools, establishment of, [84].
• Telephone repairers, employment of women as, [42].
• Tennant, Mrs. A. J., [69].
• Testing dynamos, employment of women in, [38].
• Textile industry: employment of women in, [14], [35], [38], [42], [61], [65];
• organized workers in, [87].
• Theaters, employment of women in, [29], [45].
• Tinsmiths, employment of women as, [42].
• Tobacco industry, employment of women in, [61].
• Toy making, training for, [85].
• Trades, approved, for women after the war, [219].
• Trades Boards: Minimum Wage Act, [11], [216];
• wage fixing by, [113].
• Trade League, Women’s, [87], [105].
• Trade Unions: General Federation of, [20];
• restrictions of, removed, by Munitions Acts, [50], [55];
• “Treasury Agreement,” [52-53];
• agreements allowing dilution, [61];
• women and the, [87];
• women not admitted to some, [87];
• increase of women members, [87];
• number of women members in, [88];
• reasons for growth of women members in, [89];
• difficulties to interest women in, [89];
• postwar effect on
• number of women members in, [91];
• opposition of, to leaving certificates, [96];
• agreements effecting wage changes, [114].
• Trades Union Congress, [20].
• Training: establishment of training centers, [84];
• for unemployed women, [210].
• Tramway service, employment of women in, [39], [42].
• Transferred workers, [81-82].
• Transfers of workers: from non-essential industries, [75];
• from domestic service, [76];
• between districts, [79].
• Transport work, employment of women in, [29], [39-40], [45].
• Transportation problems of workers, [162].
• “Treasury Agreement,” [52-56];
• wage regulations contained in, [100], [110];
• arrangements for fulfilment of pledges in,
• by Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, [223].
• Tuberculosis, increase in, among women, [198].
• Unemployment: postwar, [10];
• donation system, [10], [208], [211];
• proportion of occupied to unoccupied women before the war, [14];
• at outbreak of war, [21];
• efforts to relieve, [23];
• prewar occupations of women insured against, [79];
• of children, [167], [225];
• prevention of postwar, [205];
• training courses to relieve, [210].
• Violations of Munitions Acts, penalties for, [55].
• Vocational courses, establishment of, [85].
• “Waacs,” [4], [48], [69].
• Wages: raises in, due to war conditions, [4];
• “equal pay” principle, [5], [100], [119];
• effects of peace on, [11];
• Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, [11], [216];
• prewar, [15], [18];
• legislation governing prewar, [16];
• of children, [18], [117];
• in workrooms established to relieve unemployment, [26];
• fear of trade unions that employment of women would
• undercut rates of, [31-32];
• in agriculture, [34], [72], [117];
• dilution, [62], [64];
• chapter on, [99-125];
• fixing of, [99], [102-104], [106-108], [113];
• governmental provision against sweated labor, [101];
• Special Arbitration Tribunal, [104];
• for woodworkers, [108];
• effect of cost of living on, [112];
• changes under trade union agreements, [114];
• settlement of disputes, [125];
• postwar, [209], [215];
• Interim Court of Arbitration, [217];
• Industrial Courts Act, [217];
• Wages (Temporary Regulation) Bill, [217];
• recommendations concerning postwar, [220];
• table showing average weekly earnings, [239];
• table showing average wages of women and girls in
• nonmunitions trades, [249].
• Waiters Union, admission of women to, [90].
• War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry, [iv].
• War Emergency Workers National Committee, [23], [26], [63].
• War Register, [64-65].
• Webb, Sidney, [15], [18].
• Webb, Mrs. Sidney, [iv], [110], [113], [116], [169], [220].
• Welfare work: “outside welfare officers,” [6];
• legislation providing for, [8];
• for transferred workers, [81-83];
• improvements in working conditions result of, [146-166];
• welfare supervision, [155];
• attacks on, [158];
• supervision of children, [176];
• outside of working hours, [199].
• “Whitley” industrial councils, [222].
• Woman’s Freedom League, [63].
• Woman’s Army Auxiliary Corps, [48].
• Women’s Cooperative Guild, [65].
• Women’s Industrial Council, [214].
• Women’s National Land Service Corps, [73].
• Woodcutting, employment of women in, [42].
• Wood trades, employment of women in, [42].
• Woodworking industry, employment of women in, [34-35], [37], [61];
• wage awards, [108].
• Woolen and worsted industry, employment of women in, [30], [61].
• Woolwich Arsenal, employment of women in, [60];
• welfare work in, [66].
• Working Class Associations, conference of, [218].
• “Wrafs,” [4], [48].
• “Wrens,” [4], [48].
• Young Women’s Christian Association, [65].

Footnotes:

[1] These numbers have not yet been published.

[2] These numbers have not yet been published.

[3] These numbers have not yet been published.

[4] These numbers have not yet been published.

[5] Throughout this monograph English currency has been reduced to American on the approximate prewar basis of $4.80 to the pound sterling.

[6] United Kingdom, Abstract of Labour Statistics, 1915, p. 307. The exact numbers were 5,851,849 “occupied” and 12,704,404 “unoccupied.” In 1901, 5,309,960, and in 1881, 4,521,903 females were “gainfully occupied.”

[7] Dorothy Haynes, “A Comparative Study of the Occupations of Men and Women,” Women’s Industrial News, Oct., 1913, pp. 398, 399.

[8] Margaret G. Bondfield, “The Future of Women in Industry,” Labour Year Book, 1916, p. 259.