The Grandeur That Was Rome: a survey of Roman culture and civilisation

by J. C. Stobart

		PAGE
[LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS]		[xii]
[INTRODUCTION]
	The Perspective of Roman History:Latinism: Italy and the Roman	[1]
CHAP
[I.]	[THE BEGINNINGS OF ROME]
	The Growing Republic: The Constitution:The Early Roman: Early Religion: Law	[16]
[II.]	[ CONQUEST]
	The Provinces: The Imperial City	[44]
[III.]	[ THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC]
	The Gracchi: Marius: Sulla: Pompeiusand Cæsar: Late Republican Civilisation	[82]
[IV.]	[ AUGUSTUS]
	The Senate: The People and the Magistrates:Army and Treasury: The Provinces	[160]
[V.]	[ AUGUSTAN ROME]
	Reformation of Roman Society: AugustanLiterature: Art: Architecture	[223]
[VI.]	[THE GROWTH OF THE EMPIRE]
	The Principate: Imperial Rome: Educationand Literature: Art: Law:Philosophy and Religion	[253]
[EPILOGUE]		[305]
[CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY]		[317]
[BIBLIOGRAPHY]		[325]
[INDEX]		[329]

NOTE

The cameo on the front cover of this volume is from a sardonyx head of Germanicus in the Carlisle collection.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES

[HEAD OF AUGUSTUS WITH CROWN OF OAK-LEAVES]		[Frontispiece]
Engraved by Emery Walker from a photograph by Bruckmann of theoriginal in the Glyptothek, Munich. An idealised portrait of theemperor in middle life. He wears the corona civica. See p 169
[“CLYTIE”]		[248]
Engraved by Emery Walker from a photograph by Mansell & Co. of theoriginal marble in the British Museum. An idealised portrait-bust ofa lady of the imperial family, possibly Antonia, the work of a Greekartist of the Augustan Age. The name “Clytie” has no authority: theframe of petals is purely decorative
MAP (IN COLOUR)
[THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS FULLEST EXTENT]		[194]
PLATES
[1]	[GENERAL VIEW OF ROMAN FORUM]	[4]
From a photograph by Anderson. The view is taken from the Capitol,looking S.E. at the Arch of Titus, on the left of which part of theColosseum is visible. The background on the right is filled by thePalatine Hill and the substructures of Caligula’s Palace, in front of whichthe walls of the Temple of Augustus are visible. To the right of themiddle are three columns and part of the entablature of the Temple ofCastor. In the centre is the Column of Phocas. The foreground isoccupied by the Arch of Severus (l.) the Temple of Saturn (r.) and twoCorinthian columns of the Temple of Vespasian
[2]	[THE ROMAN CAMPAGNA]	[6]
From a photograph by Anderson. The ruined arches belonged to theAqueduct of Claudius. See [p. 293]
[3]	[VIEW OF SPOLETO]	[8]
From a photograph by Anderson. Modern view showing a typicalhill-town or arx. Spoletium is chiefly famous in ancient history for itsgallant repulse of Hannibal in 217 B.C.
[4]	[THE CAPITOLINE WOLF]	[18]
From a photograph by Anderson of the original bronze in the Palace ofthe Conservatori, Rome. The wolf herself is ancient, probably ofEtruscan workmanship. See [p. 18]
[5]	[(Fig 1) ARCHAIC BRONZE “PAN”]	[20]
Primitive Etruscan work. A horned and bearded god
[(Fig. 2) ARCHAIC BRONZE. “ARTEMIS”]
From photographs by Mansell & Co, of the originals in the BritishMuseum, showing the development of Etruscan bronze-work
[6]	[ETRUSCAN VASE]	[22]
Drawn from Vase F. 488 in the Etruscan Room, British Museum. Acuriously debased design, which like much of Etruscan art suggestsunintelligent copying of Greek models
[7]	[ETRUSCAN TOMB IN TERRA-COTTA]	[24]
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the Terra-cottaRoom, British Museum. The reader will notice the close resemblanceof this work, particularly the relief depicting the battle and the mourners,to Greek relief-work of the sixth century B.C.
[8]	[VIA APPIA: THE APPIAN WAY]	[40]
From a photograph by Anderson. The remains of Roman tombs may beseen on each side of the road
[9]	[LAKE TRASIMENE]	[50]
From photographs by C.T. Carr. The scene of the famous battle of217 B.C., in which Hannibal ambushed the Roman army on the shoresof the lake
[10]	[BRONZE STATUE OF AULUS METILIUS [“THE ARRINGATORE”]	[56]
From a photograph by Almari of the original bronze statue in theArchæological Museum, Florence. One of the rare examples of earlyrepublican portraiture, found near Lake Trasimene, a statue of AulusMetilius (unknown to history) in the guise of an orator. It is assignedto the end of the third century B.C., and is said to represent the transitionbetween Etruscan and Roman portraiture. I think, however, that itwould be true to describe it as a Roman head, probably copied from adeath-mask, upon a Greek body. Where is the Etruscan element?
[11]	[PUBLIUS SCIPIO AFRICANUS]	[72]
From a photograph by Brogi of the original bronze in the NaplesMuseum. The authenticity of the portrait cannot be guaranteed, butit is a fine example of Republican portraiture
[12]	[(Fig. 1) ETRUSCAN WARRIOR: BRONZE STATUETTE]	[88]
Possibly imported from Greece
[(Fig. 2) ROMAN LEGIONARY OF THE EMPIRE; BRONZE STATUETTE]
From photographs by Mansell & Co. of the originals in the BritishMuseum. These two bronze statuettes show the essential similarity ofRoman and Etruscan (or Greek) armour, which consists mainly of acuirass of leather plated with metal
[13]	[SCABBARD OF LEGIONARY SWORD]	[98]
From photographs of the original in the British Museum. The scabbardis in the scale of 1:4. The sword was only 21 in. long and 2½ in. atthe greatest breadth. It was found at Mainz. The scabbard is of woodornamented with plates of silver-gilt. At the top is a relief showingTiberius welcoming Germanicus on his victorious return from Germany(A.D. 17) In the centre is a portrait medallion of Tiberius. Therelief at the bottom indicates the return of the standards of Varus to aRoman temple. Below is an Amazon armed with the German battle-axe
[14]	[CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS]	[104]
From a photograph by Tryde of the original marble in the Jacobsencollection at Copenhagen. There is no sufficient reason to doubt theauthenticity of this famous portrait of Pompey the Great. It closelyresembles a beautiful gem in the Chatsworth collection
[15]	[BUST OF CICERO]	[108]
From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,Florence. A fine ancient portrait; but its authenticity cannot beguaranteed
[16]	[TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS, ROME]	[112]
From a photograph by Anderson. Erected in 78 B.C. Notice theIonic columns used purely as ornament
[17]	[TEMPLE OF VESTA, TIVOLI]	[116]
From a photograph by Alinari. Commonly known as “The Templeof the Sibyl,” but more properly assigned to Vesta. This is consideredto be work of about 80 B.C. The style is Corinthian
[18]	[(Fig. 1) VENUS GENETRIX]	[120]
From a photograph by Alinari of the statue in the Louvre. Describedon [p. 156]
[(Fig. 2) THE MEDICI VENUS]
From a photograph by Alinari of the statue in the Uffizi Gallery,Florence. This celebrated and once admired statue is now regarded astypical of the degenerate Greek work produced for the Roman market.The technique is still admirable
[19]	[JULIUS CÆSAR]	[136]
From a photograph by the Graphic Gesellschaft of the original blackbasalt head in the Berlin Museum. Its antiquity is not abovesuspicion
[20]	[(Fig. 1) BUST OF JULIUS CÆSAR]	[138]
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Vatican, Rome.A fine portrait, undoubtedly a close copy of an authentic original, as isthe equally famous example in the British Museum
[(Fig. 2) BUST OF BRUTUS]
From a photograph by Anderson of the bust in the Capitoline Museum,Rome. The authenticity of this has been doubted, but on insufficientgrounds. Evidently a work of about the same period as the “YoungAugustus” ([plate 25])
[21]	[ARRENTINE POTTERY]	[140]
Plate from “The Art of the Romans” by H. B. Walters, by kindpermission of Messrs Methuen & Co. Arretine pottery takes its namefrom Arretium (Arezzo), the chief centre of this native Italian industry.It is distinguished by the fine crimson clay of which it is made. Thedesigns stamped in relief from moulds are generally imitated fromGreek metal-work or Samian ware. The pieces are seldom more than 6 in. in height
[22]	[COIN PLATE (IN COLLOTYPE)]	[142]
1. Coin of Pontus, with head of Mithradates the Great. See pp. [103], [158]
2. Silver Tetradrachm, with heads of Antony and Cleopatra. See p[p. 122], [155]
3. Denarius of Sulla Rev Q. Pompeius Rufus, consul with Sulla in 88 B.C.
4. Denarius of Julius Cæsar Rev figure of Victory, with name of L Æmilius Buca, triumvir of the mint
5. Coin of Tiberius, with head of Livia and inscription SALVS AVGVSTA
[23]	[AUGUSTUS: THE BLACAS CAMEO]	[144]
Collotype plate from a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original inthe Gem Room, British Museum. Probably the work of Dioscorides,who had the exclusive right of portraying Augustus
[24]	[AUGUSTUS: THE “PRIMAPORTA” STATUE]	[148]
From a photograph by Anderson of the statue in the Vatican, Rome.The emperor is depicted as a triumphant general, haranguing his troops.In the centre of the breastplate is a Parthian humbly surrendering thestandards to a Roman soldier
[25]	[AUGUSTUS AS A YOUTH]	[150]
From a photograph by Anderson of the bust in the Vatican, Rome. Adistinctly Greek portrait, possibly taken during his early days atApollonia; an authentic original bust
[26]	[AUGUSTUS: BRONZE HEAD, FROM MEROË]	[152]
From a photograph supplied by Prof. Garstang of the original bronze,discovered by him in 1910, at Meroe in Egypt, and since presented tothe British Museum
[27]	[M. VIPSANIUS AGRIPPA]	[154]
From a photograph by Alinari of the bust in the Uffizi Gallery,Florence. The design of the bust is inconsistent with the belief thatthis is a contemporary portrait. But it resembles the portraits of thegeneral on the coins
[28]	[(Fig. 1) ROMAN BRIDGE AT RIMINI]	[156]
This fine marble bridge was begun by Augustus and completed byTiberius. Ariminum was the northern terminus of the great FlaminianRoad
[(Fig. 2) ROMAN AMPHITHEATRE AT VERONA]
From photographs by C. T. Carr. The amphitheatre was erected byDiocletian about A.D. 290 and was restored by Napoleon. It wouldcontain about 20,000 spectators. Verona was the capital underTheodoric the Ostrogoth
[29]	[TWO VIEWS OF THE PONT DU GARD]	[158]
This is part of the great aqueduct which supplied Nismes with water.The bridge has a span of 880 feet across the valley of the Gardon. Thelower tiers are built of stone without mortar or cement of anykind.
[30]	[(Fig. 1) INTERIOR OF ROMAN TEMPLE, NISMES]	[160]
[(Fig. 2) LOWER CORRIDOR OF ARENA, NISMES]
The amphitheatre at Nismes is larger than that of Verona. There aresixty arches on the ground and first floors, with larger apertures at thefour cardinal points
[31]	[THE ARENA, NISMES]	[162]
Notice the consoles in the attic story. These are pierced with roundholes to contain the poles which once supported an awning for theprotection of the spectators from the heat
[32]	[(Fig. 1) TRIUMPHAL ARCH, ST. REMY, ARLES]	[164]
Arles (Arelate) was one of the chief towns of Gallia Narbonensis, and acolony of Augustus. The upper part of the arch has perished. Thesculptures represent chained captives. There is no inscription andthe date of the monument is uncertain
[(Fig. 2) MAUSOLEUM OF JULIUS, ST. REMY, ARLES]
This mausoleum was erected by three brothers Julius to the memoryof their parents. Thousands of Gauls took the name of Julius in honourof Cæsar and Augustus. The style, which is essentially Græco-Roman,is appropriate to the period of Augustus. The reliefs again representcaptives.
Plates 29-32 are from photographs taken by Sir Alexander Binnie
[33]	[(Fig. 1) ARCH OF MARIUS, ORANGE]	[166]
From a photograph by Neurdein. Apparently erected to the memoryof C. Marius, who defeated the Teutons at Aquæ Sextiæ in 102 B.C.The neighbourhood of Orange (Arausio) was the scene of a great Romandefeat three years earlier. But the style of the monument points to adate at least a century later. The style of the reliefs is dated by thebest authorities in the reign of Tiberius. The name of the sculptor,Boudillus, appears to be Gallic
[(Fig. 2) S. LORENZO, MILAN]
From a photograph by Brogi. Remains of a handsome Corinthiancolonnade which formerly belonged to the palace of Maximian. In thefourth century A.D., Mediolanum was frequently a place of imperialresidence. In this period Milan was larger than Rome
[34]	[BARBARIAN WOMAN, KNOWN AS “THUSNELDA”]	[168]
From a photograph by Almari. This famous statue, which stands inthe Loggia dei Lanzi, at Florence, is popularly called after the wife ofArminius, who died in exile at Ravenna. It is probably a typicalTeutonic captive and very possibly occupied a place in the niche of atriumphal arch. Mrs. Strong assigns it to the period of Trajan
[35]	[(Fig. 1) ALTAR OF THE LARES OF AUGUSTUS]	[172]
From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,Florence. Augustus introduced Cæsar-worship into Rome by means ofthese altars to the Lares (household gods) and the Genius of Augustus.This altar dates from A.D. 2. Augustus is in the centre, Livia his wife tothe right, and Gaius or Lucius Cæsar to the left. Mrs Strong describesthese reliefs as “a series of singular charm”
[(Fig. 2) SACRIFICIAL SCENE, FROM THE ARA PACIS]
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Villa Medici,Rome. An earlier example of the favourite sacrificial theme. Theartist has sacrificed, as usual, the hinder part of his victim to his desireto introduce as many as possible of the portrait studies. The reliefhas been much and badly restored
[36]	[THE “TELLUS” GROUP, ARA PACIS]	[174]
From a photograph by Brogi of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,Florence. Discussed on p[p. 244-245]
[37]	[RELIEF, ARA PACIS]	[176]
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Museo delleTerme, Rome. The scene is a sacrifice. The majestic bearded figure onthe right is perhaps emblematical of the senate—one of the finest conceptionsof Græco-Roman art and little inferior to the elders on theParthenon frieze. Above the attendants on the left is a small shrineof the Penates
[38]	[SILVER PLATE FROM BOSCOREALE]	[178]
1. A silver mirror-case of exquisite design: the central medallionrepresents Leda and the swan
2. One of the beautiful examples of Augustan art in which naturalforms are used with brilliant decorative effect
From photographs by Giraudon of the originals in the Louvre
[39]	[(Fig. 1) GERMANICUS]	[180]
Sardonyx cameo from the Carlisle collection. Photograph byMansell & Co.
[(Fig. 2) GEM OF AUGUSTUS: CAMEO OF VIENNA]
Photograph by Mansell & Co. Sardonyx cameo probably by Dioscorides,A.D. 13
Below: German captives and Roman soldiers erecting a trophy
Above: Augustus and Roma enthroned. Behind them are Earth, Ocean,and (?) the World, who is crowning him with the corona civica. Behindhis head is his lucky sign—the constellation of Capricornus. Tiberiusescorted by a Victory is stepping out of his triumphal chariot andGermanicus stands between
[40]	[AUGUSTUS AND FAMILY OF CÆSARS: CAMEO]	[182]
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the BibliothèqueNationale, Paris. The largest and finest sardonyx cameo in existence.It is cut in five layers of the stone so that wonderful effects of tintingare produced, sometimes at the expense of the modelling. Tiberius andhis mother Livia occupy the centre. Germanicus and his motherAntonia stand before him. The figures to the left may be Gaius(Caligula) and the wife of Germanicus. Behind the throne Drusus islooking up to heaven, where the deified Augustus floats, surrounded byallegorical figures. Below are barbarian captives
[41]	[(Figs. 1 and 3) STUCCO RELIEFS]	[184]
From photographs by Anderson of the originals in the National Museum,Rome. Much of the ornamentation of Roman villas was in stucco orterra-cotta taken from the mould and often tinted. Both the flyingVictory and the Bacchic relief showing a drunken Silenus are extremelygraceful specimens of the art, both essentially Greek
[(Fig. 2) DECORATIVE ORNAMENT, ARA PACIS]
From a photograph by Anderson of the fragment in the Museo delleTerme, Rome. A fine example of the naturalistic ornament of theAugustan period
[42]	[(Fig. 1) FRAGMENT OF AUGUSTAN ALTAR]	[188]
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the Museo delleTerme, Rome. Quoted by Wickhoff as “a triumph of the Augustanillusionist style” a design of plane-leaves, admirable in fidelity tonature. Observe the rich mouldings of the framework
[(Fig. 2) ROMAN RELIEF]
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the original in the BritishMuseum. From the tomb of a poet. The Muse stands before himholding a tragic mask
[43]	[ALTAR OF AMEMPTUS]	[190]
From a photograph by Giraudon of the original in the Louvre. Theinscription shows that this altar was dedicated to the spirits of Amemptus,a freedman of the Empress Livia. It belongs therefore to about A.D. 25.
From the types of ornament employed one may conjecture thatAmemptus was a Greek actor and musician. The decorative effect isvery charming and the detail most beautifully worked out
[44]	[(Fig. 1) THE TEMPLE OF SATURN, FORUM, ROME]	[192]
Eight Ionic unfluted columns with part of the entablature. Thecolumns stand upon a lofty base. The Temple of Saturn, which containedthe treasury of the senate, was rebuilt in 42 B.C.
[(Fig. 2) THE TEMPLE OF MATER MATUTA, ROME]
From photographs by R.C. Smith. The most complete example of theround temple still existing, the Temple of Vesta in the Forum havingdisappeared. This is probably a temple of “Mother Dawn.” Thefive Corinthian columns of Pentelic marble were probably importedfrom Greece. Most authorities assign it to the Augustan restoration,but others place it among the earliest Republican works. The tiledroof is of course modern, and somewhat spoils its effect. This littletemple stood in the Forum Boarium (cattle market)
[45]	[PORCH AND INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON, ROME]	[196]
From photographs by Anderson and Brogi. See [p. 251]
[46]	[MAISON CARREE, NISMES]	[198]
From a photograph kindly supplied by Sir Alexander Binnie. Perhapsthe finest, certainly the most complete example of Græco-Romanarchitecture. The style is Corinthian, but characteristic Romandevelopments are the high podium or base, and the fact that the surroundingperistyle is “engaged” or attached to the wall except infront (pseudo-peripteral). This temple was dedicated to M. Aureliusand L. Verus. It was surrounded by an open space and then aCorinthian colonnade. Nismes, once the centre of a flourishing trade incheese, is especially rich in Roman remains
[47]	[THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME]	[200]
From a photograph by Anderson. The theatre, built by Augustus inB.C. in memory of his ill-fated nephew, was constructed in threetiers, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The upper story has disappeared,and the elevation of the ground floor has been spoilt by the rise in thelevel of the ground
[48]	[INNER COURT, FARNESE PALACE, ROME]	[202]
From a photograph by Anderson. The splendid cortile of the FarnesePalace, designed by Michael Angelo, is copied from the Theatre ofMarcellus, exhibiting the same succession of orders. The juxtapositionof these two plates should assist the reader’s imagination to re-createthe original splendours of Roman architecture from the existingruins
[49]	[(Fig. 1) COLONNADE OF OCTAVIA]	[204]
From a photograph by Anderson. Erected by Augustus in honour ofhis beloved sister, who was married first to M. Marcellus then toM. Antony. She was the mother of Marcellus, great-grandmother ofNero and Caligula. She died in 11 B.C. The colonnade was probablybuilt some years before her death. It enclosed the temples of JupiterStator and Juno, it also contained a public library and a senate-housewhich was destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus
[(Fig. 2) ROMAN BAS-RELIEF]
From a photograph by Almari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,Florence. A sacrifice, probably a work of the time of Domitian.The heads, most of them portraits, are of admirable execution, but theovercrowded design is unpleasing. The architectural background istypical of the Flavian period. This slab was used by Raphael in hiscartoon of Paul and Barnabas at Lystra
[50]	[COIN PLATE (IN COLLOTYPE): ROMAN EMPERORS]	[206]
	1. Nero 2. Trajan 3. Vespasian 4. Hadrian	5. Marcus Aurelius 6. Domitian 7. Vitellius 8. Galba
From originals in the British Museum
[51]	[HADRIAN’S WALL: NEAR HOUSESTEADS (BORCOVICIUM), NORTHUMBERLAND]	[210]
From a photograph by Gibson & Son. See p[p. 261-262]
[52]	[PORTA NIGRA, TRIER, GERMANY]	[214]
From a photograph by Frith. An example of military architecture, trulyRoman in character. Probably dates from the time of Gallienus (A.D.260)
[53]	[RELIEF FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN—I]	[216]
On the left, the emperor surrounded by his staff is haranguing histroops. Observe how the ranks of the army are portrayed in file. On theright, fortifications are being constructed (Cichorius, plate xi)
[54]	[RELIEF FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN—II]	[218]
On the left, horses are being transported across the Danube, Trajan isseen steering his galley, sheltered by a canopy. On the right he islanding at the gates of a Roman town on the river banks. The temples arevisible within the walls (Cichorius, plate xxvi)
[55]	[RELIEF FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN—III]	[220]
A cavalry battle, in which the Romans are charging the mail-cladSarmatians. The reader will notice the resemblance between the latterand the Norman knights of the Bayeux tapestry (Cichorius, plate xxviii)
[56]	[RELIEF FROM TRAJAN’S COLUMN—IV]	[222]
On the left the Romans, in testudo formation, are attacking a Dacianfortress. In the centre Trajan is receiving the heads of the defeatedenemy (Cichorius, plate li)
Four collotype plates, reproduced by special permission from Prof.Cichorius’s “Die Reliefs der Traianssaule” (Berlin, Georg Reimer, 1896)Photographs by Donald Macbeth
[57]	[(Fig 1) RELIEF, FROM A SARCOPHAGUS]	[224]
From a photograph by Alinari of the original in the Uffizi Gallery,Florence. An example of “continuous narration” in relief-work. Thesarcophagus is ornamented with typical scenes in the life of a Romangentleman—the chase, the greeting by his slaves, sacrifice, marriage.The design is described as “subtly interwoven” or “fatiguing andconfused” according to the taste of the onlooker
[(Fig. 2) ROMAN AND DACIAN]
From a photograph by Graudon of the original relief in the Louvre. Thesource of this slab is unknown; it evidently belongs to the beginning ofthe second century A.D., and refers to the Dacian Wars of Trajan, orpossibly of Domitian. The contrast between the proud calm Roman and thewild barbarian is very fine, and recalls similar contrasts in Greeksculpture. In the background a Dacian hut and an oak-tree are seen
[58]	[RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS]	[226]
From a photograph by Brogi. Shows the emblems captured in Jerusalem(A.D. 70) being carried in triumph at Rome. We can distinguish theseven-branched candlestick, the table for the show-bread and the SacredTrumpets. The tablets were inscribed with the names of captured cities
[59]	[RUINS OF PALMYRA (VIEW OF GREAT ARCH FROM THE EAST)]	[230]
From a photograph by Donald Macbeth of plate xxvi in Robert Wood’s“Ruins of Palmyra,” 1753. The city of Palmyra, traditionally founded bySolomon, at a meeting-point of the Syrian caravan routes, first roseinto prominence in the time of Gallienus, when Odenathus, its Saracenprince, was acknowledged by the emperor as “Augustus,” i.e. acolleague in the imperial power. After his assassination his widowZenobia succeeded to his power and ruled magnificently as Queen of theEast until she was defeated and made captive by Aurelian. Thearchitectural remains are Corinthian in style, embellished withmeaningless oriental ornament
[60]	[BA’ALBEK: THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS]	[232]
Heliopolis or Ba’albek was the centre of a fertile region of Cœle-Syriaon the slopes of Anti-Lebanon. It was always a centre of Baal or Sunworship, it was a city of priests and its oracle attracted great renownin the second century A.D. when it was consulted by Trajan. AntoninusPius built the great Temple of Zeus (Jupiter), one of the wonders of theworld. The worship was rather that of Baal than of Zeus, and oriental incharacter. It included the cult of conical stones such as that broughtto Rome by Elagabalus. The architecture is of the most sumptuousCorinthian style, with some oriental modifications
[61]	[BA’ALBEK: THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS, INTERIOR]	[234]
Here we observe the oriental round arch forming the lowest course. Thematerial of the buildings is white granite with decorations of roughlocal marble
[62]	[BA’ALBEK: THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS, EAST PORTICO]	[236]
Observe the rather effective juxtaposition of fluted and unflutedcolumns
[63]	[BA’ALBEK: THE CIRCULAR TEMPLE, FROM BACK]	[238]
This small circular temple is of a style without parallel in antiquity.The nature of the cult is unknown
The last four plates are reproduced by special permission of theDirector of the Royal Museum, Berlin, from photographs supplied by theKöniglichen Messbildanstalt. They are plates xvii, xxi, xxii, and xxxrespectively, in Puchstein and Von Lupke’s “Ba’albek,” published for theGerman Government by G. Reimer, Berlin
[64]	[(Fig. 1) TIMGAD: THE CAPITOL]	[240]
Timgad (Thamugadi) was founded by Trajan as a Roman colony in A.D. 100.It is on the edge of the Sahara in the ancient province of Numidia. Ithas recently been explored by the French. The photograph shows theCapitol raised on an artificial terrace. Two of the Corinthian columnshave been re-erected
[(Fig. 2) TIMGAD: THE DECUMANUS MAXIMUS AND TRAJAN’S ARCH]
A view of the main street, spanned by a triumphal arch in honour ofTrajan. The ruts of the carriage-wheels are still visible as at Pompeii.
From photographs by Miss K. P. Blair
[65]	[POMPEII: THERMOPOLION, STREET OF ABUNDANCE]	[242]
From a photograph by d’Agostino. The new street revealed by the mostrecent excavations of Prof. Spinazzola. The photograph shows us a“hot-wine shop” with the bar and the wine-jars
[66]	[POMPEII: MURAL PAINTING, STREET OF ABUNDANCE]	[244]
From a photograph by Abeniacar. Another of the most recent finds, afresco of the Twelve Gods
[67]	[(Fig. 1) THE EMPEROR DECIUS]	[246]
From a photograph by Anderson of the bust in the Capitoline Museum,Rome. A splendid example of the realistic portraiture in the thirdcentury A.D.
[(Fig. 2) MARCUS AURELIUS]
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the bust in the British Museum.All the portraits of the virtuous philosopher agree in producing thisaspect of tonsorial prettiness which belies the character of a manly andvigorous prince
[68]	[(Fig. 1) THE EMPEROR CARACALLA]	[250]
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the bust in the British Museum
[(Fig. 2) THE EMPEROR COMMODUS]
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the bust in the British Museum
[69]	[RELIEFS FROM BASE OF THE ANTONINE COLUMN]	[252]
From photographs by Anderson of the originals in the Vatican, Rome
[(Fig. 1) WARRIORS]
Represents a military review. The infantrymen with their standards aregrouped in the centre, while the emperor leads a procession of thecavalry with their vexilla, who march past with what Mrs Strongdescribes as a “fine and pleasing movement.” Discussed on [p. 292]
[(Fig. 2) APOTHEOSIS OF ANTONINUS AND FAUSTINA]
Antoninus and his less virtuous consort are being borne up to heaven onthe back of Fame or the Genius. The youth reclining below bears theobelisk of Augustus to indicate that he personifies the Campus Martius.The figure on the right is Rome. The composition of the scene displays aludicrous want of imagination
[70]	[TWO VIEWS OF THE AQUEDUCT OF CLAUDIUS]	[254]
From photographs by Anderson. See [p. 293]
[71]	[(Fig. 1) THE ARCH OF TITUS, ROME]	[258]
See [p. 293]
[(Fig. 2) THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME]
The Arch of Constantine is adorned with borrowed reliefs, mainly fromthe Forum of Trajan. It is the best preserved of the Roman arches. Fromphotographs by R. C. Smith
[72]	[THE COLOSSEUM, ROME]	[260]
From a photograph by Anderson. Described on [p. 293]. In the foreground isthe ruined apse of the Temple of Venus and Rome, built by Hadrian
[73]	[THE COLUMN OF TRAJAN]	[262]
From a photograph by Anderson. The great Forum of Trajan was constructedby the Greek architect Apollodorus between A.D. 111 and 114. The base ofthe column formed a tomb destined to contain the conqueror’s ashes. Atthe top was his statue, now replaced by an image of St. Peter. The storyof the Dacian war is told on the spiral relief about 1 metre broad. Seeplates 53-56
[74]	[DETAIL OF THE ANTONINE COLUMN]	[264]
From photographs by Anderson. The Antonine Column was constructed on themodel of the Column of Trajan, seventy-five years later, and thusaffords an insight into the progress of relief sculpture at Rome. Thelater work shows more attempt at individual expression, not alwayssuccessful, and the scenes are less crowded. They depict episodes fromthe German and Sarmatian wars of A.D. 171-175, (a) represents thedecapitation of the rebels and (b) the capture of a German village:the huts are being burned while M. Aurelius serenely superintends anexecution
[75]	[ANTINOUS]	[266]
[(Fig. 1) from a photograph by Giraudon of the Mondragore bust in theLouvre]
[(Fig. 2) from a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the bust in the BritishMuseum]
The significance of the artistic cult of Antinous in the age of Hadrianis discussed on [p. 293]. It is probably only the diffidence of our nativearchæologists which has allowed the colossal Mondragore bust itssupremacy. The British Museum portrait represents him younger and in theguise of a youthful Dionysius, the expression far more human, and thetreatment of the hair far less elaborate and effeminate
[76]	[ANTINOUS: FROM THE BAS-RELIEF IN THE VILLA ALBANI, ROME]	[268]
From a photograph by Anderson
[77]	[RELIEFS OF MARCUS AURELIUS]	[270]
[(Fig. 1).] Marcus Aurelius accompanied by Bassæus Rufus, prætorianprefect, is riding through a wood and receiving the submission of twobarbarian chiefs. In my judgment this scene, and especially the figureof the foot soldier at the emperor’s side, is the chef-d’œuvre ofRoman historical relief-work
[(Fig. 2).] Marcus and Bassæus are sacrificing in front of the temple ofthe Capitoline Jove. These panels probably belonged to a triumphal archerected in honour of the German and Sarmatian wars of A.D. 171-175. Fromphotographs by Anderson of the originals in the Conservatori Palace,Rome
[78]	[TWO VIEWS OF THE ARCH OF TRAJAN, BENEVENTUM]	[274]
From photographs by Alinari. This splendid monument at Beneventum on theAppian Way was erected in A.D. 114 in expectation of the emperor’striumphant return from the East, where, however, he died. It isconstructed of Greek marble and once carried a quadriga in bronze. Thereliefs on the inside [(Fig. 1)] depict the triumph of Trajan after hisParthian campaign. Those on the outside [(Fig. 2)] represent the Daciancampaigns
[79]	[ALTAR DISCOVERED AT OSTIA]	[276]
From a photograph by Anderson of the original in the National Museum,Rome. A fine example of decorative art. The motive of the garlandedskull is a favourite one. This altar was, as the inscription shows, awork of Hadrian’s time
[80]	[TOMB OF THE HATERII]	[278]
From a photograph by Alinari of the fragments in the Lateran Museum,Rome. Monument to a physician, and his family of about a.d. 100. Thescheme is ugly and barbaric, but it includes some very fine decorativework. The facades of five Roman buildings are shown—the Temple of Isis,the Colosseum, two triumphal arches, and the Temple of Jupiter Stator.The temples are open and the images visible
[81]	[BRIDGE OF ALCANTARA, SPAIN]	[282]
From a photograph by Lacoste, kindly supplied by Sr. D. Miguel Utrillo.This superb bridge over the Tagus is 650 feet long. The design exhibitsa rare combination of grace with strength
[82]	[TOMB OF HADRIAN, ROME]	[284]
From a photograph by Anderson. The Castel S. Angelo, restored as afortress by Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia), consists mainly of theMausoleum of Hadrian; the bridge leading to it was also constructed forthe emperor’s funeral. The circular tower was formerly ornamented withcolumns between which were statues. The famous Barberini Faun was one ofthem. There was a pyramidal gilt roof, and a colossal quadriga at thetop. The whole building was formerly faced with white Parian marble.Besides Hadrian, all the Antonines, and Septimius Severus and Caracallawere buried here. The castle has had a stirring history in mediævaltimes also. The building is modelled upon the Mausoleum of Caria
[83]	[TWO VIEWS OF HADRIAN’S VILLA, TIVOLI]	[286]
From photographs by R. C. Smith. See [p. 296]
[84]	[TWO MOSAICS (COLOUR-PLATE)]	[288]
[(Fig. 1) SACRIFICIAL RITES, PROBABLY AT A TOMB]
[(Fig. 2) PREPARING FOR A SACRIFICE]
From the originals in the British Museum, after photographs by DonaldMacbeth
[85]	[MURAL PAINTING: FLUTE-PLAYER (COLOUR-PLATE)]	[290]
From the original in the British Museum, said to have been found in acolumbarium on the Appian Way
[86]	[POMPEII: TWO VIEWS OF THE RUINS]	[292]
From photographs by R. C. Smith. The upper picture shows how the buriedcity has been dug out of the ashes from Vesuvius which form the subsoilof the surrounding country. The lower picture is a general view, showingCorinthian columns which formed a colonnade round the open impluvium
[87]	[POMPEII: HOUSE OF THE VETTII CUPID FRESCOES]	[294]
From photographs by Brogi. The upper picture shows the Cupids engaged asgoldsmiths; the lower shows them as charioteers, Apollo and Artemisbelow. Two examples of the elegant mythological style of the Greekdecline, but extremely effective for the purpose. This art is held tohave originated in Alexandria
[88]	[POMPEII: FRESCO OF THE SACRIFICE OF IPHIGENIA]	[296]
Collotype plate from a photograph by Brogi. Probably a copy of one ofthe great pictures of the old Greek masters, Timanthes, about 400 B.C.If so it is the most important example of early painting in existence.The psychological motive of the composition is a study of grief. Calchasthe prophet is grieved with foreknowledge, Ajax and Odysseus aresorrowfully obeying commands which they do not understand. Iphigeniaherself shows the fortitude of a martyr, but Agamemnon’s grief, since hewas her father, is too great for a Greek to exhibit. Hence his face ishidden. Above appears the deer which Artemis allowed to be substitutedfor the maiden
[89]	[HOUSE OF LIVIA: INTERIOR DECORATION (COLOUR-PLATE)]	[300]
Reproduced by permission of the German Institute of Archæology, fromLuckenbach’s “Kunst und Geschichte” (grosse Ausgabe, Teil I, Tafel IV),by arrangement with R. Oldenbourg, Munich
[90]	[THE ALDOBRANDINI MARRIAGE, VATICAN, ROME]	[302]
From a photograph by Brogi of the fresco now in the Vatican. In thecentre is the veiled bride, Venus is encouraging her, Charis iscompounding sweet essences to add to her beauty, Hymen waits on thebride’s left seated on the threshold stone, outside is a group of threemaidens, a musician, a crowned bridesmaid, and a tire-woman. At theother side the bride’s family is seen. This is without question the mostcharming example of ancient painting
[91]	[BRONZE SACRIFICIAL TRIPOD]	[304]
From a photograph by Brogi of the original, discovered at Pompeii, nowin the National Museum, Naples. An example of Hellenic metal-work of theAugustan age
[92]	[MITHRAS AND BULL]	[308]
From a photograph by Mansell & Co. of the statue in the British Museum.Represents the Mithraic sacrament of Taurobolium in which theworshippers received new life by bathing in the blood of a bull. Mithraswears a Phrygian cap, for the Mithraic religion, though it arose inPersia, only began to form artistic expression when it passed throughthe art region of Asia Minor. This motive constantly recurs in themonuments of the second and third century all over Europe
[93]	[MAUSOLEUM OF PLACIDIA, RAVENNA]	[312]
From a photograph by Alinari. This little church which contains thetombs of the Emperor Honorius, her brother, and of Constantius III., herhusband, as well as a sarcophagus of the Empress in marble, formerlyadorned with plaques of silver, is eloquent of the shrunken glory of theWestern Empire in the fifth century. It was founded about A.D. 440. Itis built in the form of a Latin cross, and is only 49 ft. long, 41 ft.broad. The interior contains beautiful mosaics. Ravenna contains manyother relics of this period when it was the seat of the Roman government
[94]	[THE BARBERINI IVORY]	[314]
From a photograph by Giraudon of the original in the Louvre. In thecentre Constantine is represented on horseback with spear reversed intoken of victory. Round him are Victory, a suppliant barbarian, andEarth with her fruits. To the left is a Roman soldier bearing astatuette of Victory. Below the nations of the East bring their tribute.Above two Victories, in process of transition, into angels, support amedallion of Christ, still of the beardless type associated with Apolloand Sol Invictus. The emblems of sun, moon, and stars show thatChristian Art is not yet severed from paganism
[95]	[(Fig. 1) THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATO]	[316]
From a photograph by Miss Carr. Diocletian planned this great palace,which is more like a city or fortress, at Spalato (Salonæ) on theDalmatian coast, for his place of retirement. Its external wallsmeasured 700 ft. by 580 ft. It was fortified on three sides and enteredby three gates. The arcading in which the oriental arch springs from theRoman column is the most interesting architectural feature of theextensive ruins now existing
[(Fig. 2) RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE; THE BATTLE OF THE MILVIANBRIDGE]
From a photograph by Anderson. Shows the really degenerate art of thefourth century A.D. In this battle (A.D. 312) Constantine defeated hisrival Maxentius, who was drowned with numbers of his men in the Tiber.The relief shows the drowning

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

[ROMAN As: BRONZE (FULL-SIZE) WEIGHT 290 g. ]	[18]
The style of the design points to about 350 B.C., and we have no realevidence of a coinage any earlier. The design is not primitive though itis clumsily cast. The head of Janus is often found on Greek coins and sois the galley prow. The weight of the As sank from 12 to 1 oz. in thecourse of republican history
[ETRUSCAN FRESCO: HEAD OF HERCULES]	[21]
An example of Etruscan painting which does not differ from Greek. Thisis probably a head of Hercules, whose name is found on Etruscaninscriptions
[PREHISTORIC ETRUSCAN POTTERY]	[22]
From Ridgeway’s “Early Age of Greece.” Black ware decorated with incisedornament: hippocamps or sea-horses on one: found at Falern in Tuscany.Pottery of this type is found on prehistoric sites all over theMediterranean
[THE ROMAN TOGA ]	[23]
The woollen toga was the official dress of the Roman citizen. It wasgenerally worn over a tunic, though antiquarians, like Cato, wore thetoga alone. It was worn in the natural colour of the wool, butcandidates for office wore it specially whitened, and magistrates had apurple border
[MAP OF ITALY, SHOWING GROUND OVER 1000 FEET HIGH]	[69]
[PLAN OF INFANTRY MANIPLES]	[97]
[GALLIC POTTERY]	[114], [115]
It is clearly only a provincial development of the Arretine ware whichis itself imitated from the Samian ware of Greece
[COIN, SHOWING SURRENDER OF THE PARTHIAN STANDARDS]	[199]
[COIN. PORTRAIT OF P. QUINTILIUS VARUS ]	[217]
[ROMAN LIMES ]	[264]
A reconstruction of the great frontier lines which encircled the Empireto the North along the Rhine and Danube. This is the style of thelimes of Upper Germany
[THE ROMAN FORUM IN THE EARLY EMPIRE]	[281]
[HADRIAN’S TOMB, RESTORED]	[295]
See [p. 294]