Rocks and relative age
Very early in the science of geology it was recognized that in many places one can tell the comparative ages of rocks by their relations to one another. For example, most sedimentary rocks are consolidated accumulations of large or small rock fragments and were deposited as nearly horizontal layers of gravel, sand, or mud. In an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the layer on the bottom was deposited first and the layer on top was deposited last. All of these must, of course, be younger than any previously formed rock fragments incorporated in them.
Igneous rocks are those formed by solidification of molten material, either as lava flows on the earth’s surface (extrusive igneous rocks) or at depth within the earth (intrusive igneous rocks). The relative ages of extrusive igneous rocks can often be determined in much the same way as those of sedimentary strata. A lava flow is younger than the rocks on which it rests, but older than those that rest on top of it.
An intrusive igneous rock must be younger than the rocks that enclosed it at the time it solidified. It may contain pieces of the enclosing rocks that broke off the walls and fell into the liquid. Pebbles of the igneous rock that are incorporated in nearby sedimentary layers indicate that the sediments must be somewhat younger.
All of these criteria tell us only that one rock is older or younger than another. They tell us little about the absolute age of the rocks or about how much older one is than the other.
Fossils and geologic time
Fossils provide important clues to the ages of the rocks in which they are found. The slow evolution of living things through geologic time can be traced by a systematic study of fossils. The fossils are then used to determine the relative ages of the rocks that contain them and to establish a geologic time scale that can be applied to fossil-bearing rocks throughout the world. [Figure 18] shows the major subdivisions of the last 600 million years of geologic time and some forms of life that dominated the scene during each of these intervals. Strata containing closely related fossils are grouped into systems; the time interval during which the strata comprising a particular system were deposited is termed a period. The periods are subdivisions of larger time units called eras and some are split into smaller time units called epochs. Strata deposited during an epoch comprise a series. Series are in turn subdivided into rock units called groups and formations. Expressed in tabular form these divisions are:
| Subdivisions of geologic time | Time-rock units | Rock units |
|---|---|---|
| Era | ||
| Period | System | |
| Epoch | Series | |
| Group | ||
| Formation |
The time scale based on the study of fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks is called the stratigraphic time scale; it is given in [table 1]. The subdivisions are arranged in the same order in which they were deposited, with the oldest at the bottom and the youngest at the top. All rocks older than Cambrian (the first period in the Paleozoic Era) are classed as Precambrian. These rocks are so old that fossils are rare and therefore cannot be conveniently used as a basis for subdivision.
The stratigraphic time scale is extremely useful, but it has serious drawbacks. It can be applied only to fossil-bearing strata or to rocks whose ages are determined by their relation to those containing fossils. It cannot be used directly for rocks that lack fossils, such as igneous rocks, or metamorphic rocks in which fossils have been destroyed by heat or pressure. It is used to establish the relative ages of sedimentary strata throughout the world, but it gives no information as to how long ago a particular layer was deposited or how many years a given period or era lasted.