§ 90.5. The Most Distinguished Theologians of the Age of Charles the Bald.

  1. The powerful metropolitan Hincmar of Rheims, who died in A.D. 882 (§ [82, 7]; [83, 2]), was not indeed strong in dogmatics, but in his writings just as well as in his life and struggle he was heart and soul a church leader and statesman. His most important work from a theological point of view is the Capitula Synodica ad presbyteros parochiæ suæ on various points of worship and discipline, a notable witness to the zeal and care which this man, so much taken up with affairs of state and ecclesiastical controversies, showed in the discharge of his ministerial duties. Of his writings in connection with the Gottschalk controversy (§ [91, 5], [6]) only the prolix work De predest. Dei et libero arbitrio vindicating the decrees of Quiersy of A.D. 853 are now extant.
  2. Paschasius Radbertus, who died about A.D. 865, was monk, and, from A.D. 844-851, also abbot of the monastery of Corbei in Picardy. But among the monks of that place there was a cotery which occasioned the most profound grief to the pious-minded abbot; especially the learned monk Ratramnus under the protection of court favour took delight in contesting the somewhat ultra-pietistic views of his abbot. Probably it was this that led Radbertus to resign his office in A.D. 851. Besides the two treatises controverted by Ratramnus he composed biblical commentaries, which are more independent and contain more of his own than was common at that time. He also wrote 3 bks. on faith, love and hope; besides several Hagiographies.
  3. Ratramnus, the antagonist of the former, takes a very prominent place among the clear and subtle thinkers of that age. Besides his controversial treatises against Radbertus (§ [91, 3], [4]) and against Hincmar (§ [91, 5], [6]), he took part in the burning controversy between the Greeks and Latins (§ [67, 1]) and wrote, Contra Græcorum opposita Romanam eccl. infamantium.
  4. Florus Magister was a cleric of the diocese of Lyons distinguished no less for great learning than for poetic gifts. His principal work De actione Missarum, s. expositio in Canonem Missæ is, notwithstanding its title, not so much a liturgical treatise as a controversial tract against Radbertus’ doctrine of the Eucharist (§ [91, 3]). In the liturgical controversy between Agobard and Amalarius, he took the side of Agobard and argued against Amalarius in several epistles. In the predestinarian controversy he published the work Contra J. Scoti Erigenæ erroneas definitiones (§ [91, 5]). He also composed a Martyrologium.
  5. Haymo, bishop of Halberstadt, who died in A.D. 853, won great reputation not only by his compiled exegetical works and his Homiliarium for the festival part of the year, but also as author of a Church History, which, however, is nothing more than a working up of extracts from Rufinus.
  6. Servatus Lupus, scholar of Rabanus, was from A.D. 842 abbot of Ferrières. His 130 epistles are important for the history of his time, as he was in constant correspondence with the most famous men of his day. On the side of Gottschalk in the predestinarian controversy he wrote his treatise De tribus quæstionibus.
  7. Remigius of Auxerre, who died about A.D. 908, was teacher of the monastic school at Rheims, and subsequently at Paris. Besides numerous commentaries on the books of the Old and New Testaments in the usual compilatory and allegorical style, he has left in his Expositio Missæ a mystico-allegorical explanation of the ceremonies of the mass.
  8. Regius of Prüm, abbot of the monastery there, subsequently resigned his rank and retired into the monastery of Treves. He died in A.D. 915. His Chronicon reaching down to A.D. 906 is of great value for his own times. His 2 bks. De cantis synodalibus et disciplinis ecclesiasticis are a directory for the visitation of churches to be carried out by means of synodical judicatures.

§ 90.6.

  1. Anastasius Bibliothecarius was abbot of a Roman monastery and librarian under popes Nicholas I., Hadrian II. and John VIII., and visited the Byzantine court in A.D. 869 as member of an embassy of Emperor Louis II., and was also present at the 8th œcumenical Council at Constantinople (§ [67, 1]). He translated the acts of this synod into Latin, wrote the lives of several saints, and composed a Hist. ecclest. s. Chronographia tripartita drawn from three Byzantine historical works of that period. To the Liber Pontificalis s. de vitio Roman. pontificum, reaching down to the death of Stephen V. in A.D. 891, which has been ascribed to him, he can only have contributed the Vita of pope Nicholas I., and perhaps also the Vitæ of his four immediate predecessors. It is a history of the popes gathered together from various sources that had their origin at different times, the earliest of which goes back to A.D. 354. The oldest extant recension of it reaches down to Pope Conon in A.D. 687, and forms an important link in the chain of Romish fabrications and interpolations, by means of which the numerous fabricated acts of Romish martyrs, as well as already existing fables referring to particular popes and emperors (comp. e.g. § [42, 1]), gained credence, more recently introduced liturgical practices had assigned to them a more remote antiquity, and the popes were represented as legislators for the whole church. The complete biographies often written by contemporaries preserved in this collection are of great historical value.
  2. Eulogius of Cordova was chosen archbishop in A.D. 858, but was not received by the Moorish government, and suffered martyrdom in A.D. 859 (§ [81, 1]). The most important of his writings is the historical Memoriale Sanctorum s. Ll. III. de Martyrib. Cordubens. The Apologeticus Sanctorum is a continuation of the former with violent invectives against Islam and its false prophet. Paulas [Paul] Alvarus of Cordova, from his youth closely associated with Eulogius, wrote his life and vindicated in a Judiculus luminosus the tendency to court martyrdom then frequently shown by Christians but often objected to.

§ 90.7.

  1. Joannes Scotus Erigena, the miracle as well as the enigma of his age, by birth probably an Irishman, who flashed out as a brilliant meteor in the court of Charles the Bald and passed away from view, without its being known whence he came or whither he went, was the greatest scholar, the most profound, subtle and liberal thinker of his times, with a speculative power the like of which was not seen for centuries before and after. He died after A.D. 877. His extant works embrace fragments of his commentary on the Areopagite (§ [47, 11]), and a Latin faithful, literal and therefore hard to understand translation of the Areopagite’s writings, also a translation of a work of Maximus Confessor on difficult passages from the writings of Gregory Nazianzen (Loca ambigua), his controversial treatise De prædestinatione (§ [91, 5]), a homily on the prologue of John’s gospel, a fragment of a speculative-mystical treatise De egressu et regressu animæ ad Deum, and the Opus palmare of the author, by far the most comprehensive of his writings, the 5 bks. De divisione naturæ. Based upon the gnosis of the school of Origen, but resting mainly on the theosophical mysticism of the Areopagite and the dialectic of Maximus Confessor, he produced in this treatise a system of speculative theology of magnificent dimensions which, in spite of every effort to hold by the doctrinal position of the church, is but one piece of heterodoxy from beginning to end. He starts from the principle that true theology and true philosophy are only formally different, but essentially identical. The Fides have to express the truth as Theologia affirmativa (καταφατική) in the biblically revealed and ecclesiastically communicated shell, accommodating itself to the finite understanding by figurative and metaphorical expressions. But the task of the Ratio is to strip off this shell (Theologia negativa, ἀποφατική), and by means of speculation raise the faith to knowledge. The title of this book is to be explained from its fundamental thought that nature, i.e. the sum of all being and non-being, by which he understands everything the existence of which is yet unknown, or merely potential, or necessarily belonging to things past, comprises four forms of existence:—Natura creatrix non creata, i.e. God as the potential sum of all being, Natura creatrix creata, i.e. the eternal thoughts of God regarding the world as the eternal primal types of all creation, Natura creata non creans, i.e. the world in time as the visible product and sensible realization of the eternal invisible world of ideas, and Natura nee creata nee creans, i.e. God as the final end of all created being, to whom all creation when all contradictions have been overcome returns in the ἀποκατάστασις τῶν πάντων. The Aristotelian threefold division into the unmoved and moving, the moved and moving, and the moved and not moving, seems to have afforded him the starting-point for his fourfold division; while the divergent conception of them, their enlargement and development may be traced to Platonic and Neo-Platonic influences.—That such a system must essentially tend to pantheism soon became evident, but on the other hand Erigena’s own Christian consciousness strongly reacted against the pantheistic current of his thought, and he was anxiously concerned to preserve the fundamental truths of Christian Theism. By the fundamental fourfold division of his system he could not give to the doctrine of the Trinity a necessary and controlling but only an accidental and occasional position. Only the presence of this doctrine in Scripture and tradition obliged him to maintain it. He speaks indeed of three persons in God, but he uses the expression only in an improper sense, and has no intention of explaining Father, Son and Spirit as mere names of divine relations (habitudines, relationes): Pater vult, Filius facit, Spir. S. perficit. In the Son as the creative Word of God are all original causes of things, undistinguished, unordered; by the Spirit are they differentiated into the various phenomena and effects in the kingdom of nature as well as of grace. On his doctrine of evil, comp. § [91, 5]. As Origen has in himself the germs of all orthodoxy and heterodoxy of the ancient church undeveloped and uncontrasted, so also in Erigena are there the germs of the contradictions of later scholasticism and mysticism. Had he lived three centuries later he would probably have set the whole learned world astir, but now he passed unhonoured, misunderstood, scarcely regarded worth dealing with for heresy (§ [91, 5]), and apparently leaving little trace behind him. His great work De divisione naturæ was first condemned by a provincial Council at Sens, and this judgment was confirmed by Honorius III. in A.D. 1225.The book was characterized as Scatens vermibus hæreticæ pravitatis; orders were given that it should be sought out everywhere and burnt.[255]

§ 90.8. The Monastic and Cathedral Schools had as their main task the training of capable servants for the church. The handbooks mainly in use were those of Cassiodorus, Isidore, Bede, Alcuin and Rabanus. Great diligence was shown, especially in the monasteries, in founding libraries and multiplying books by means of good copies. Alcuin made a threefold division of all sciences; ethics, physics and theology. Ethics corresponded to what was afterwards called the Trivium (Grammar, Rhetoric and Dialectic); Physics to the Quadrivium (Arithmetic, Geometry, Music and Astronomy). These two together comprehended the whole range of the seven free arts, i.e. worthy of the study of a free man, liberal studies. Latin was the language of intercourse and instruction. Greek, which was spread by Theodore of Tarsus, a Greek monk, who, after being long a teacher in Rome, was in A.D. 669 made archbishop of Canterbury, and by his pupils was also taught in the more important schools. Acquaintance with Hebrew was much more rare, and was often obtained by means of intercourse with learned Jews. Boethius [Boëthius] was the vehicle of instruction in philosophy. In the 9th century the works ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite (§ [47, 11]) were sent to France as a present from the Byzantine emperor Michael to Louis of France. He was identified with the founder of the church of Paris of the same name, and patriotic feeling gave an immense impulse to the study of his writings. The abbot Hildmin of St. Denys, and subsequently Joannes Erigena, translated them into Latin.Encyclopædic works, giving compendiums of the whole range of the sciences then known, were produced by Isidore and Rabanus.[256]—Continuation, § 99, 3.

§ 90.9. Various Branches of Theological Science.—The labours of the German church in the department of scientific theology was directed to the church’s immediate needs, and hence the character of its theology was biblical and practical, and the reputation of the fathers so extravagantly high, that wherever it was possible, teaching, preaching, proving and refuting were all carried on in their very words. Charlemagne’s powerful efforts in the direction of reform gave even in the department of theology abundant occasion and encouragement to scholars round about him to a more independent procedure, and the theological controversies of the 9th century afforded sufficient scope to independent thinking.

  1. Exegesis on the basis of the Vulgate was most diligently prosecuted. Charlemagne set Alcuin to produce a critical revision of its very corrupt text. Agobard combated the mechanical theory of inspiration by the assertion that the holy prophets were something better than Balaam’s ass. Only one out of the very numerous exegetes, Christian Druthmar, recognised it as a first principle, most essential and necessary, if not the only task of the exegete, to bring out the grammatical and historical sense of the words of Scripture. The literal sense was and continued to be regarded as the scullion of interpretation, while it was thought that the most precious treasures of Divine wisdom were to be found in the allegorical sense, i.e. with application to the mysteries of the faith, the tropological or moral, and the anagogical, which aimed at the elevation of the mind.
  2. In Systematic Theology Apologetics was most feebly represented. The humble form of the paganism to be controverted did not require elaborate defences of the Christian faith, but the advance of Mohammedanism and the great number of Jews established in France, especially under Louis of France, by means of their wealth and bribes, developed an incredible arrogance. While Jewish and pagan slaves were not allowed to have baptism, Christian slaves on the other hand were compelled to observe the Sabbath, to work on Sunday, to eat flesh on fast days; they openly blasphemed Christ, insulted the church and sold Christian slaves to the Saracens. Agobard fought against them energetically by word, Scripture and action, but the needy court protected them. Isidore and Rabanus in their apologetical writings proved the nullity of the Jewish beliefs. From the time of Charlemagne theologians were much more eagerly engaged in polemics (§§ [91], [92]). Isidore in his Ll. III. Sententiarum collected from patristic passages a system of doctrine and morals, which continued a favourite text-book for centuries. Alcuin’s Ll. III. De fide Trinitatis form a compendium of dogmatics. The introduction of the Pseudo-Areopagita into the West prepared the way for speculative mysticism, which had its first representative in Joannes Scotus Erigena.
  3. In Practical Theology homiletical literature was but poorly represented. Besides the Homiliarius of Paul Warnefrid (§ [88, 1]), we meet with Bede, Walafrid, Rabanus and Haymo as authors of sermons. On the other hand great and constant interest was shown in developing a theory of worship, in describing it and giving a mystical explanation of it. Isidore with De officiis ecclesiasticis was the first in this department. Charlemagne set to all his theologians the task of explaining the baptismal ceremony. In the time of Louis the Pious, Agobard appears as a reformer of the liturgy, in connection with which he passionately contended against Amalarius, against whom also Florus Magister entered the lists. Important works in this department were also written by Rabanus, Walafrid and Remigius. On works treating of church law and church discipline, see § [87] and § [89, 5].
  4. Finally, as to the department of Historical Theology all knowledge of earlier church history was derived from Rufinus and Cassiodorus. Even Haymo’s Church History is made up simply of extracts from Rufinus. All the greater diligence was shown throughout the Middle Ages in chronicling the ecclesiastical and political events of the immediate present and also keeping the past in memory. This endeavour shows itself in a threefold direction. (a) The writing of National Chronicles.The Visigoths had their Isidore, the Ostrogoths their Cassiodorus,[257] the Longobards their Paul Warnefrid, the Franks their Gregory of Tours, the Britons their Gildas[258] and Nennius,[259] the Anglo-Saxons their Bede.—(b) Then we have the clumsy compilations of Annals and Chronicles which most monasteries produced, and which were continued from year to year.—(c) And further, Biographies, both of distinguished statesmen and distinguished churchmen. The Vitæ Sanctorum are innumerable, mostly quite uncritical, composed purely for the glorification of some local saint. To this category belong the numerous Martyrologies, arranged in the order of the Calendar. Among the most famous were those prepared by Bede, Ado of Vienne, Usuardus, Rabanus, Notker Balbulus, Wandelbert, etc. In the department of historical biography proper may be included the portion of the Liber pontificalis belonging to this period, the Hist. Mettensium Episcoporum of Paul Warnefrid, and Isidore’s continuation of Jerome’s Catalogus, which was further continued by Ildefonsus of Toledo.

§ 90.10. Anglo-Saxon Culture under Alfred the Great, A.D. 871-901.—Alfred the Great, the greatest and noblest of all the kings that England has ever had, was the grandson of Egbert who had united in A.D. 827 the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. When five years old he received papal anointing at Rome and two years later in company with his pious father he travelled thence, made a considerable stay at the brilliant court of Charlemagne where he received the impress of its superior culture, and began his reign in A.D. 871 in his 22nd year when the kingdom was sorely oppressed by Danish invasions. He applied all the energy of his mind to the difficult problems of government, to the emancipation and civilization of his country and people by driving out the Danish robbers, and then improving the internal condition of the land by attention to agriculture, industry and trade, by a wise organization, legislation and administration, by the founding of churches, monasteries and schools, and by furthering every scientific endeavour from a thoroughly national point of view. When already thirty-six years of age he learnt the Latin language and used this acquirement for the enriching of Anglo-Saxon literature by translations from his own hand, with many important additions of his own, of Boëthius’ Consolatio philosophiæ, the Universal History of Orosius, Bede’s History of the Church of England and the Regula pastoralis of Gregory the Great. He also began a translation of the Psalms.He stimulated his learned friends to a like activity, among whom bishop Asser of Sherborne in his Vita Alfredi (Engl. transl. in “Six Old English Chronicles”) has reared a worthy memorial of his master.[260]—Continuation, § 100, 1.