8. German philosophy, Kantian and post-Kantian, in particular the Hegelian, turned to anti-Christian and anti-supernaturalist account by Strauss, Vatke, Bruno Bauer, Feuerbach, and Marx.
9. German atheism and scientific “materialism”—represented by Feuerbach and Büchner (who, however, rejected the term “materialism” as inappropriate).
10. Revived English deism, involving destructive criticism of Christianity, as in Hennell, F. W. Newman, R. W. Mackay, W. R. Greg, Theodore Parker, and Thomas Scott, partly in co-operation with Unitarianism.
11. American transcendentalism or pantheism—the school of Emerson.
12. Colenso’s preliminary attack on the narrative of the Pentateuch, a systematized return to Voltairean common-sense, rectifying the unscientific course of the earlier “higher criticism” on the historical issue.
13. The later or scientific “higher criticism” of the Old Testament—represented by Kuenen, Wellhausen, and their successors.
14. New historical criticism of Christian origins, in particular the work of Strauss and Baur in Germany, Renan and Havet in France, and their successors.
15. Exhibition of rationalism within the churches, as in Germany, Holland, and Switzerland generally; in England in the Essays and Reviews; later in multitudes of essays and books, and in the ethical criticism of the Old Testament; in America in popular theology.
16. Association of rationalistic doctrine with the Socialist movements, new and old, from Owen to Bebel.
17. Communication of doubt and moral questioning through poetry and belles-lettres—as in Shelley, Byron, Coleridge, Clough, Tennyson, Carlyle, Arnold, Browning, Swinburne, Goethe, Schiller, Heine, Victor Hugo, Leconte de Lisle, Leopardi, and certain French and English novelists.